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Sanskrit

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comprehensive knowledge

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language

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• learn to understand and write Sanskrit

• progress quickly beyond the basics

• explore the language in depth

i be where you want to be with teach yourself i

teach®

yourself

Sanskrit

michael coulson
revised by

richard gombrich
and james benson

Fa over sixty years, mae than
50 million people have learnt over
750 subjects the teach yourself
way, with impressive results.

be where you want to be
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The publishers wish to acknowledge the Invaluable help of Dr. Richard Gombrich, Boden
Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford Unlversty. to the preparation of the first edition of this book.
They would also like to thank Dr. James Benson, Assistant Professor in Sanskrit at Harvard
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abbreviations vlii

preface ix

introduction xiii

using ibis book xxiii

01 The nagari script. Vowels, anusvara, visarga.
Consonants, stops, nasals, semivowels, sibilants, h.
Conjunct consonants. Other signs. Numerals.
Transliteration. Prosody. List of conjunct consonants. 1

02 Roots and verb classes. Vowel gradation. Classes I,

IV and VI. Present indicative. Prefixes. Sandhi. Use
of the sandhi grids. Sandhi of final r and h.
Punctuation of vowel sandhi, ca, iva, kirn and iti. ’ 21

03 Nouns and pronouns. Nominative, accusative and
vocative cases. Substantives and adjectives.
Irregularities of external sandhi. Nominal sentences.

Word order, iva. Dvandva compounds. 37

04 Past participle. Instrumental case. saba. Past passive

sentences. Omission of pronouns, eva. esah. va.
krtam, alam and kim. Adverbs of manner.* Internal
sandhi. Retroflexion of s and n. Absence of external
sandhi. 47

05 The cases: dative, ablative, genitive, locative.

Expressions of time. ayam. Pronominal adjectives.
ka& eit and ko >pi. as ‘be’, blrii ‘be’. To have’. To
feel’. Absolutive. khalu. Sandhi of final n and t + £. 59

06 Feminine gender. Determinative compounds, depend-

ent and descriptive. Prepositions. Action nouns in a.
Ambiguities of external sandhi. 71

□ contents

contents

07 Consonant stems. Feminines in I. Causatives. Class X
verbs. Karmadharaya prefixes, pfirva. Compounds of
more than two members and their use. Use of gala. 83

08 Changeable consonant stems. Exocentric com-

pounds: bahuvrihi. ‘Called’, ttman. svayam.
Predicative accusatives. Action nouns in ana.
sarmrtta. ‘Palace’, ‘temple’. 97

09 Stems in i and a. Stems in vant and mant.

Atmanepada. variate. Past active participle.
Exocentric compounds: prepositional (including
sa_, nls_ and yatML)— avyayibhiva. Polite forms
of address, janah in compounds. distyS.
Denominative verbs. Vrddhi derivatives. ’’ 111

10 Stems in i and a. Stems in in. in as a verbal suffix.
Present participle, mahint enam Stem forms in
composition. The imperative. Abstract nouns.
Exclamations. ‘Containing’. Verbal nouns in ti. 124

11 Stems in r. {Periphrastic future.] The suffix tra. The

passive. Locative absolute. Relative pronoun.
Analysis of bahuvnhis. Attributively used adverbs.
Pronominal table. The suffix tail. Numerals.
Concord. Nominative with iti. mitra. 139

12 Athematic presents (II, V and VIII). Gerundives, kr
and compounds of kr/bhu. Relative adverbs: clauses

of place, manner and time. The suffix vat. vftesah. 157

13 Reduplication. Presents of classes III, VII and IX. The
infinitive. The future. Relative adverbs: noun-clauses
and clauses of reason, result condition, concession

etc. asau. idi ‘etc.’ ajffSpayatiArijftapayati. 170

14 The imperfect The optative. Remote conditions.

Comparatives and superlatives. Constructions with Hi.
Clauses of command. Interrogative clauses. Word
repetition. 188

15 The perfect The aorist The injunctive. The precative.
ahan. antaram. iastrapani etc. Metre (the anustubh;
even metres; semi-even* metres; the Ary5). The
KumSra-sambhava. Mallinatha’s commentary.
Paninian grammar. Quotations from literary critics. 205

appendix 1: further Sanskrit study 233

appendix 2: grammatical paradigms 236

Nouns: vowel stems; consonant stems. Pronouns.
Numerals. Verbs: general view of the verb; present para-
digms; perfect; aorist and precatrve; principal parts of verbs.

appendix 3: classical metres 269

Sanskrit-English exercises: transcription 272

SanskriHEngiisb exercises: key 282

English-Sanskrit exercises: Roman key 295

English-Sanskrit exercises: nigari key 303

Sanskrit-English vocabulary 309

English-Sanskrit vocabulary 374

English index 394

Sanskrit index 399

(a abbreviations

Abbreviations: abl. = ablative; acc. = accusative; adj. = adjective;
caus. = causative; f(em). = feminine; gen. = genitive; indef. = in-
definite; inf. = infinite; intrans. = intransitive; irreg. = irregular;
m(asc). = masculine; n(eut). = neuter; part. = participle; pass. =
passive; pi. = plural; poss. = possessive; prep. = preposition;
pres. = present; s(in)g. = singular; trans. = transitive.

The plan, scope and length of this book have been determined
primarily by the aim of enabling students to cope as rapidly as
possible with straightforward Classical Sanskrit texts. The mate-
rial has been drawn almost entirely from the Sanskrit (not Prakrit)
prose dialogue of the major dramas, extracted onto cards and
then graded according to die main morphological and syntactical
features that required explanation. From Chapter 6 onwards all
the sentences of the exercises and all the more elaborate examples
given in the chapters themselves are taken without change from
actual Sanskrit works. While the intention is to provide an intro-
duction to the Classical language in general, because of the nature
of the bulk of the material the book is, in the first place, a guide
to Sanskrit dramatic prose; and it is probable that I have some-
times incautiously presented as generally valid points of usage
that really hold good only of the Classical dramatists.

Existing Sanskrit primers tend to be admirably systematic in
their presentation of the complicated morphology of Sanskrit
(which includes a mass of verb forms little used by most writers)
but rather cursory in their treatment of such basic facts of life as
the prevalence of nominal constructions and compound forma-
tions. The student may get the misleading impression that
Classical Sanskrit syntax is very similar to that of Latin and
Greek, and emerge well drilled in the varieties of athematic in-
flexion and yet quite unprepared, for instance, for such simple
discoveries as the fact that someone in a play, speaking from the
heart, instead of saying ‘Thank God my children are alive’ can
and does say (literally) ‘Thank God I am alive-childed’. In the
present book thorough drilling in all the forms of declension and
conjugation has been a secondary consideration, and the student
will therefore benefit from a certain self-discipline in memoris-
ing accurately the paradigms introduced into each chapter. In

0 preface

part this shift of emphasis (though I think it desirable at any
rate) has been dictated by the use of real Sanskrit material: sec-
ond-person dual atmanepada forms are not particularly thick on
the ground whether in plays or in texts of any other kind.
Serious inadequacy in this respect is, however, prevented by the
fact that grammatical forms once introduced continue to be il-
lustrated and required throughout the book: each exercise con-
tains a natural element of revision of all previous exercises.

It is particularly students without a teacher who need a fuller ex-
planation of Sanskrit syntax and idiom than existing primers give,
and so I have been happy to model this book upon the Teach
Yourself volumes which I myself in the past have found so
helpful and stimulating. At the same time it seemed practical to
assume a somewhat greater degree of sophistication in potential
students of Sanskrit than in students proposing to teach them-
selves a language such as French. Someone who has never previ-
ously learnt a foreign language will probably find the early
chapters rather heavy going unless he is fairly bright. A significant
proportion of readers are likely to have some acquaintance with
either Latin or Greek, and so I have cited parallels where these
seemed illuminating, but knowledge of either language on the part
of all readers is in no way assumed. In passing it is perhaps worth
stating plainly that the present work is essentially intended to be
an entirely ‘synchronic’ study of Classical Sanskrit: occasional ref-
erences to the earlier history of the language, whether at the Vedic
or Indo-European stage, have been introduced where it seemed
that they might help to emphasise or clarify the point under dis-
cussion. Undoubtedly some readers would prefer more of such
references, other less.

For reasons of both convenience and economy, the use of the
ndgari script is discontinued in the body of the text after the first
five chapters. Ample practice in reading and writing the script
continues to be provided in the exercises.

Many people have given help and advice during the long and la-
borious period of preparation of this book. A particularly deep
debt of gratitude is due to the following: to Dr. Richard
Gombrich, of Oxford, for detailed comment and unfailing sym-
pathy and encouragement over many years; to Mr. C. A. Rylands,
formerly of the School of Oriental and African Studies in
London, for reading with a quite remarkably sharp eye much of
the final draft, and for giving me in many acute observations the
fruits of his years of experience as a teacher of Sanskrit; to my
colleague at Edinburgh Mr. W. E. Jones, for much patient and

careful discussion of the first two chapters; and to Mrs.
Elizabeth Kelsali, without whose competent editorial assistance
I should still be struggling to get the book finished. Much error
has been eliminated with the help of these friends and of the stu-
dents with whom I have used the work in draft form. I am
keenly conscious that many imperfections remain.

Edinburgh, January 1973

Note : Dr. Coulson died before this book could be published. Dr.
Gombrich has seen it through the press; he wishes to thank Miss
Elizabeth Christie for her help with the proof-reading.

Sanskrit is a member of the Indo-European family of languages
to which most of the languages of Europe (including, for in-
stance, English, Welsh, Latin and Greek) also belong. These
have all evolved from a single language (or, more immediately, a
group of closely related dialects), namely ‘Primitive Indo-
European’ or just ‘Indo-European’, spoken in about the third
millennium BC, of which no direct record remains. The original
Indo-European speakers seem to have been tribes inhabiting the
plains of Eastern Europe, particularly the area north of the Black
Sea (archaeological remains in the South Russian Steppes are in
harmony with this supposition), from where migration subse-
quently occurred in many directions. With the discovery of
Hittite, Sanskrit has ceased to be the oldest recorded Indo-
European language: but for many reasons, including the fact
that Hittite separated early from the main Indo-European stock,
Sanskrit remains of central importance to the student of the his-
tory of the Indo-European languages.

Sanskrit belongs, more specifically, to the Indo-Iranian branch of
Indo-European. The other most important member of this
branch is Persian. The earliest Indo-Iranian speakers are conve-
niently known as Aryans, from the name which they gave them-
selves (Sanskrit arya, Avestan airy a — from the latter the modem*
name Iran is derived, while the name Eire, at the other end of the
Indo-European spectrum, may also be cognate). Although it is
reasonable to assume that the original homeland of the Aryan
tribes was to the north of the Caucasus, our earliest record of
them comes neither from this region nor from the Indo-Iranian
area but from south of the Caucasus, from the Mitanni kingdom
of Northern Mesopotamia, where a ruling dynasty bearing
Aryan names and worshipping Aryan gods such as Indrahad es-
tablished itself in the first half of the second millennium BC.

Fj introduction

Introduction

xlv

However the main movement of Aryan migration was not south
but east into Central Asia, and from there by separate penetra-
tions into Iran and India. Thereafter the Aryans of Iran and the
Aryans of India went their separate ways both culturally and lin-
guistically. The oldest stage of Iranian is represented by Avestan,
the sacred language of the Zoroastrians, and by Old Persian, the
dialect used in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenian
kings.

In India, a highly evolved and urbanised civilisation had existed
long before the coming of the Aryans. This was the ‘Indus Valley
Civilisation’, known to us in particular from excavations at
Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, and dating from at least the mid-
dle of the third millennium. The culture was stable over a long
period, and literate. It came to a sudden end, and it is tempting
in the extreme to attribute its destruction to the coming of the
Aryans. However an awkward time gap exists, and has not yet
been successfully explained, for the Indus civilisation seems to
have perished in about 1700 BC and there is no evidence that the
Aryans reached India before the latter half of the second millen-
nium.

The survival in Baluchistan up to the present day of a Dravidian
language, Brahui, so far from what is now the main Dravidian area
in Southern India, makes it reasonable to conclude that before
the arrival of the Aryans Dravidian was spoken over a much
wider area, and the suggestion has naturally been made that the
inhabitants of the Indus cities spoke a Dravidian language. At
present this remains unproved, unless recent claims of successful
decipherment of the Indus script are accepted, and other non-
Aryan language families do exist in India, most notably the
group of Munda languages. Although the language of the
Aryans established itself over most of Northern India, it seems
that in the long run the Aryans were affected both culturally and
linguistically by the peoples they conquered, and Dravidian and
Munda influences (particularly the former) can be traced in the
development of Sanskrit itself.

The speech introduced by the Aryans into India developed and
diversified, and the major modem languages of Northern India
are descended from it. The generic term for such languages is
Indo-Aryan. One may conveniently divide the development of
Indo-Aryan into three stages: Old, Middle and Modern.

Old Indo-Aryan is equivalent to Sanskrit only in the widest sense
of the latter term, and is divided principally between Vedic and
the later Classical Sanskrit. Our record of Old Indo-Aryan

begins with the hymns of the Rgveda, which date back to at least
1000 BC and are the product of a considerable literary skill. That
they were composed a fair time after the arrival of the Aryans in
India is shown both by the absence of any reference to a home-
land outside India and by divergences, principally phonetic, in
the language itself from what can be reconstructed as the com-
mon Indo-Iranian tongue. Intermediate between the language of
the Rgveda and that of the Classical period is the language of the
Bralimanas, prose works which seek to interpret the mystical
significance of the Vedic ritual, the earliest of them written well
before the middle of the first millennium BC. The Upanisads are
a part of the Brahmana literature.

With the passage of time the language of even the educated
priestly class diverged more and more from that of the sacred
hymns themselves, and it became increasingly a matter of con-
cern that the hymns should be transmitted without corruption,
in order to preserve their religious efficacy. Consequently, a
study began to be made of the principles of linguistic, and more
particularly of phonetic, analysis. From this developed a gram-
matical science which concerned itself not only with the sacred
language but also with contemporary educated speech. The
grammar of Panini, the AstadhySyl, usually attributed to the
fourth century BC, is evidently the culmination of a long and so-
phisticated grammatical tradition, though the perfection of his
own work caused that of his predecessors to vanish. In less than
4000 sutras, or brief aphorisms (supplemented on points of de-
tail by the grammarian Katyayana), he analyses the whole
phonology and morphology of Sanskrit. He anticipates much of
the methodology of modern formal grammar: his grammar is
generative and in some respects transformational. It cannot,
however, be compared very directly with modern grammars,
since its form is geared to the needs of oral transmission, and
Panini could not avail himself of the mathematical symbols and
typographical conventions of the written page. The work was
so brief that it could be recited from beginning to end in a cou- -
pie of hours. It was so comprehensive and accurate that it
quickly became the final authority on all questions of correct
usage. By Classical Sanskrit is meant essentially the language
codified by Panini.

The formal differences between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are
not enormous. Phonologically, the most obvious is a difference of
sandhi, whereby for instance a trisyllable such as vlriam
(or vlriyam) becomes a disyllable vlryam. Morphologically, the
wealth of inflected forms is somewhat reduced, for instance by

introduction

the disappearance of the subjunctive. In vocabulary a fair number
of ancient Aryan words are lost, but the loss is far outweighed by
the acquisition of enormous numbers of words from non-Aryan
sources. Classical Sanskrit is based on a more easterly dialect of
Old Indo-Aryan than is the Rgveda, as is shown by the fact that
it contributes a number of words which preserve an original Indo-
European 1, where the Rgvedic dialect (in common with Iranian)
changes this sound to r thus both Vedic raghu ‘swift, light’ and
Classical Sanskrit laghu ‘light, nimble’ are cognate with Greek
elakhus. Other Old Indo-Aryan dialects existed; we have no direct
record of them, but from them various dialects of Middle Indo-
Aryan evolved.

The beginnings of Middle Indo-Aryan antedate Panini, for the
speech of the ordinary people had been evolving faster than that
of the educated classes. The term samskrta means ‘polished,
(grammatically) correct’, and is in contrast with prdkrta
‘(speech) of the common people’. Just as Sanskrit interpreted* in
a wide sense may conveniently stand for Old Indo-Aryan, so
PrUkrit, interpreted equally widely, may stand for Middle Indo-
Aryan. More narrowly, three stages of Middle Indo-Aryan may
be distinguished. The first is represented by Pali, the only Indian
language in which the earliest Buddhist scriptures have been
preserved on a large scale, and by the dialects used in the in-
scriptions of the emperor Asoka (c. zyo bc). The process of mor-
phological simplification which distinguishes Classical Sanskrit
from Vedic here continues and is accompanied by drastic phono-
logical simplification, including a reduction in the number of
vowels and a simplification of consonant groups (thus Sanskrit
traividya becomes Pali tevijja). These processes continue (for in-
stance, with the loss of many intervocalic consonants) in the sec-
ond stage, that of the Prakrits proper; including Mahdrastrl,
SaurasenI and Magadhi, and the various dialects of the jain
scriptures. The third stage is represented by Apabhramsa, a
generic term for the further popular evolution of Middle Indo-
Aryan up to the end of the first millennium AD, foreshadowing
the final collapse of the old Indo-European inflexional system
and the emergence of the Modem Indo-Aryan languages,
Bengali, Hindi, Panjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, etc. Hindi in its
wider sense denotes a group of dialects spoken from Rajasthan
to Bihar: upon one particular dialect are based both the official
language of Pakistan, Urdu, and the official language of India,
(modem standard) Hindi. The term Hindustani is sometimes
used nowadays to denote the common substratum of these two

languages, lacking both the extreme Persianisation of Urdu and n^jj"
the extreme Sanskritisation of Hindi.

The Sanskrit of Panini’s time had the cachet not simply of being §
the dialect of the educated classes but also of being much closer §■

than was the popular speech to the language of the sacred scrip- Si

tures themselves. Naturally the prestige of Sanskrit was resisted §
by those who questioned the authority of the Vedas, and for this
reason the early writings of the Buddhists and the Jains are in va-
rieties of Middle Indo- Aryan; the Buddha is reported to have said
that his teachings should be given to the people in their own lan-
guage. Nevertheless, Sanskrit continued to be cultivated, and not
merely by the brahmins. Important evidence of this is provided

by the two great Indian epics, the Mahabh&rata and the

Ramayana. They were recited and handed down by non-brahmins
(the Satas), and their audience was a popular one. Although their
origins are no doubt more ancient, they evidently belong in some-
thing like their present form to about the beginning of the first
millennium ad. Their language is Sanskrit, but of a later kind
than Panini’s — Classical Sanskrit with an admixture of minor
features of Middle Indo- Aryan morphology and syntax. It is
Sanskrit composed instinctively rather than according to Panini’s
rules by men for whom Sanskrit was not too remote from their
own informal speech. The advantage of using Sanskrit, in addi-
tion to the dignity which it imparted to the verse, lay in its role
as a lingua franca uniting the various regions of Aryan India.

One may compare the way a Londoner and a Glaswegian often
find the English of the BBC easier to understand than each
other’s.

As Middle Indo-Aryan developed and its various dialects drew
further apart, this role as a lingua franca grew increasingly im-
portant, and at a time when brahminical influence was increasing.

In the early centuries AD, first in the north and later in the south,
Sanskrit became the only acceptable language both for adminis-
tration and for learned communication. The Buddhist Asvaghosa
(second century ad) is a significant figure in the process. While'
early Buddhist literature had first eschewed Sanskrit completely,
then compromised with a hybrid language or at least with a non-
Paninian Sanskrit, he himself not merely writes Classical Sanskrit
but is a master of Sanskrit literary style, and is as important in the
history of Sanskrit literature as in the history of Buddhism.

This is the beginning of the great period of Classical Sanskrit, and
it lasted for something like a thousand years (possibly a little less

Introduction

xviii

for creative literature, but several centuries longer in various fields
of speculative thought). For the early centuries ad our knowledge
is sketchy, for much of what was written has perished. Part of the
reason for Asvaghoga’s literary importance is that he is very nearly
the only significant predecessor of the poet Kalidasa whose work
has survived. Kalidasa is commonly dated to the early fifth century,
and on reading his poetry one cannot doubt that it represents the
culmination of a great tradition; yet he is the earliest of the major
classical poets. Perhaps, like Panini, Kalidasa eclipsed his prede-
cessors and made their work seem not worth preserving.

By now Sanskrit was not a mother tongue but a language to be
studied and consciously mastered. This transformation had
come about through a gradual process, the beginnings of which
are no doubt earlier than Panini himself. Something of the true
position must be reflected in the drama, where not merely the
characters of low social status but also the women and young
children speak some variety of Prakrit. Kalidasa learnt his
Sanskrit from the rules of a grammarian living some 700 years
before his time. Such a situation may well strike the Western
reader as paradoxical. Our nearest parallel is in the position of
Latin in Medieval Europe. There is, however an important dif-
ference. Few would deny Cicero or Vergil a greater importance
in Latin literature than any Medieval author. Conversely, few
Sanskritists would deny that the centre of gravity in Sanskrit lit-
erature lies somewhere in the first millennium ad, for all that its
authors were writing in a so-called ‘dead language’.

On this point it may be useful to make a twofold distinction—
between a living and a dead language, and between a natural
and a learned one. A language is natural when it is acquired and
used instinctively; it is living when people choose to converse
and formulate ideas in it in preference to any other. To the mod-
em Western scholar Sanskrit is a dead as well as a learned lan-
guage. To Kalidasa or 3 amkara it was a learned language but a
living one. {The term Teamed’ is not entirely satisfactory, but the
term ‘artificial’, which is the obvious complementary of ‘natu-
ral’, is normally reserved for application to totally constructed
languages such as Esperanto.)

The literary medium of any language contains elements of
learned speech. Apart from any tendency to conform to conscious
grammatical rules, one may observe a limitation or regularisation
of sentence patterns, and a widening of vocabulary by the itemi-
sation of more complex ideas. In the expression of a given idea,
provided that in both cases it is contained in a single sentence, the

syntax will therefore be simpler in formal than in conversational
speech. Compare the subject-verb-object simplicity of ‘an unex-
pected arrival will admittedly affect our numbers’ with the rela-
tive syntactical complexity of ‘it’s true that how many we’re going
to be will depend on whether anyone turns up that we aren’t ex-
pecting’. (A particular factor affecting the written style of English
is the need to avoid sentences made seriously ambiguous by the
lack of an appropriate voice inflection.)

Living languages, whether natural or learned, change and de-
velop. But when a learned language such as literary English is
closely tied to, and constantly revitalised by, a natural idiom,
its opportunities for independent growth are limited. Sanskrit
provides a fascinating example of a language developing in com-
plete freedom from such constraints as an instrument of intel-
lectual and artistic expression. To say that Classical Sanskrit was
written in conformity with Panini’s rules is true, but in one sense
entirely misleading. Panini would have been astounded by the
way in which Bana or Bhavabhuti or Abhinavagupta handled
the language. It is precisely the fact that Sanskrit writers insisted
on using Sanskrit as a living and not as a dead language that has
often troubled Western scholars. W. D. Whitney, a great but
startlingly arrogant American Sanskritist of the nineteenth cen-
tury, says of the Classical language: ‘Of linguistic history there is
next to nothing in it all; but only a history of style, and this for
the most part showing a gradual depravation, an increase of ar-
tificiality and an intensification of certain more undesirable fea-
tures of the language— such as the use of passive constructions
and of participles instead of verbs, and the substitution of com-
pounds for sentences.’ Why such a use of passives, participles
and compounds should be undesirable, let alone depraved, is left
rather vague, and while there have been considerable advances
in linguistic science in the past fifty years there seems to have
been nothing which helps to clarify or justify these strictures.
Indeed, Whitney’s words would not be worth resurrecting if
strong echoes of them did not still survive in some quarters.

Acceptance of Panini’s rules implied a final stabilisation of the
phonology of Sanskrit, and also {at least in the negative sense
that no form could be used which was not sanctioned by him) of
its morphology. But Panini did not fix syntax. To do so explic-
itly and incontrovertibiy would be difficult in any language,
given several ways of expressing the same idea and various other
ways of expressing closely similar ideas. Certain major morpho-
logical simplifications typical of Middle Indo-Aryan were pre-
vented by Panini’s codification: thus Sanskrit retains a middle

xix

introduction

introduction

xx

voice and an obligatory dual number. On the other hand, the
way Prakrit dealt with all past tenses, replacing them with a past
participle and where necessary a passive construction, being a
negative procedure could be imitated by Sanskrit (see Chapter
4), and as a result in certain styles of Classical Sanskrit a past fi-
nite tense is something of a rarity. Because it did not occur to
Panini to prohibit such a construction, or to limit its use to par-
ticular circumstances, supposedly ‘Paninian’ Sanskrit could be
written in a quite non-Pininian way, eschewing a whole mass
of difficult forms and conforming to the usage of the popular
language.

But in other and more important respects the syntactical changes
wrought in Sanskrit took it further from popular speech. Indeed,
one such may be distinguished which actually depends upon the
preservation of the full Old Indo- Aryan case system, namely the
increasing exploitation of various cases to represent certain
‘abstract’ syntactical relationships: instrumental or ablative to
express cause, dative purpose, locative circumstance and hypoth-
esis, an abstract accusative with a verb of motion to express
change of state, and so on. This development is inseparable from
the most striking change of all, the exploitation of nominal com-
position. In Vedic, noun compounds are hardly more frequent
than in Homeric Greek, but their frequency increases throughout
the history of the language. More important still, the compounds
which occur in the earlier language are seldom of more than two
members, whereas in the later language the occurrence in a sin-
gle short sentence of several compounds of four or five members
is perfectly normal, and in certain styles compounds of twenty or
more members are not thought excessive. Here again, advantage
has been taken of a negative freedom. It is, in fact, an important
feature of compounds that, co-ordinatives apart, they are binary
in structure (i.e. can be analysed through repeated bisection— see
particularly Chapter 7). Panini gives rules for the construction of
compounds. By applying these rules recursively, compounds of
any length may be built up. At one and the same time Panini is
obeyed and bypassed. One may indeed wonder to what extent
the style of the grammatical sQtras themselves encouraged this
process; evolved to meet very specific scientific needs and utilis-
ing cases and compounds in a way quite foreign to the natural
language, it may well have served as a partial model for other
types of discourse.

The cumulative effect of such changes is certainly startling. The
syntax of Classical Sanskrit in many major respects bears little re-
semblance to the syntax of any other Indo-European language

(leaving aside similarities in certain kinds of Middle Indo- Aryan
writing). Whitney is typical of many Western scholars who
manage to convey contempt for the avoidance of the intricacies of
the Old Indo- Ary an verbal system, with a simultaneous contempt
for the pedantry of those who flex their grammatical muscles
from time to time by using a number of recherche forms and irri-
tation at the difficulty of understanding the ordinary language of
the learned. The first two points are of little importance. As to the
third, it is certainly true that modern scholars often meet with am-
biguities and obscurities in reading Classical texts, and that some
of the ambiguities arise out of the use of long compounds. But the
texts were not written for us, and there is litde to suggest that
Sanskrit writers qualified to participate in academic discussion
found any difficulty in following the language it was couched in:
such a situation would indeed have been perverse. (The use of
long compounds in creative literature (k&vyam) is something of a
separate issue: there, easy intelligibility might well be at odds with
the desire to achieve some particular effect.) What is perhaps true
is that such a style does not take kindly to textual corruption. A
great burden of information may be carried by a single vowel or
consonant, the alteration of which may give an entirely different
twist to the meaning of a whole sentence. To this may be added
the inadequacy of existing dictionaries for many kinds of Sanskrit
texts, and the fact that modem scholarship has still a long way to
go in reconstructing the cultural and intellectual presuppositions,
the ‘universe of discourse’ implicit in Sanskrit literature.

xxi

Another striking feature of Classical Sanskrit is its wealth of
synonyms. First (what is, of course, not quite the same thing), it
has a huge vocabulary, a composite store of words from many
sources, Aryan and non-Aryan. Secondly, there operates upon
these words a tendency, no doubt normal to some extent in any
learned language, to blur distinctions between words that to
start with were close in meaning but not synonymous. One may
compare the way writers of English will ring the changes on var-
ious series of words (‘way, manner, fashion, mode’, ‘occupation,
employment, pursuit’) merely to avoid repeating the same word,
not because some other is especially appropriate (the phenome-
non of ‘elegant variation’). Particularly significant is the way a
hyponym (more specific term— ‘innovation, development, trans-
formation’) will alternate with its superordinate (less specific
term— ‘change’) for the same reason, and not because some par-
ticular level of precision is being aimed at. The usage of words
that are more distinct ‘emotively’ than ‘cognitively’ (‘hide’, ‘con-
ceal’) may also be assimilated, and this may come about because

Introduction

the literary context (e.g. committee report as opposed to adver-
tising copy) neutralises possible differences of emotional effect.

Poetry written within such a literary idiom does not necessarily
seek to reverse these trends. As the literary tradition develops,
poets moving towards a classical style build up a useful stock of
uncoloured synonyms (amor, ardor, flamma, venus; amour, fers,
feu, flamme, soupirs, vceux ) which they can draw on at will, con-
fident that long use has made the words innocuous. Classical
poets do not need these extra words because they are technically
less competent than poets who stick closely to natural speech:
they merely prefer to reserve their energies for other ends. The
tendency to treat language in this way, perhaps only faintly ob-
servable in the Western tradition, is of central importance in the
poetry of Classical Sanskrit. The poet has quite enormous
reserves of cognitively and emotively synonymous words to
draw upon. What most especially swells these reserves is the
possibility of a sort of ‘componential’ compounding; thus the
word rajan ‘king’ may be replaced by an indefinite number of
compounds meaning ‘lord of men’, ‘guardian of the people’, ‘en-
joyer of the earth’, etc. (the extent to which any word with the
appropriate sense could be used in helping to form such com-
pounds was partly a question of style; naturally, creative litera-
ture in general went further than academic prose, and thorough
exploitation of the device was considered a particular charac-
teristic of the Gauda (Eastern) poetic style). Because of these re-
sources it was possible to write Sanskrit verse in metres of great
complexity and beauty.

Furthermore, because of the long history of the language and the
varied sources from which it drew its vocabulary, many Sanskrit
words have a number of quite distinct meanings; and this fea-
ture, too, is much augmented by compounding (e.g. because it
literally means ‘twice-born’, the word dvijah can signify ‘brah-
min’, ‘bird’ or ‘tooth’). Thus punning is made possible on a scale
inconceivable in a natural language— on far too large a scale, in
fact, to be effective per se for any humorous purpose. Instead
sustained paronomasia is used in certain literary styles for per-
fectly serious literary purposes— not (at least in good writers) for
empty display or mere playfulness, but to achieve a density of
expression that could be attained in no other way: the same
words may convey simultaneously the imagery of an idea and
the contrasting imagery of a metaphor or simile which com-
ments upon that idea. In this as in other respects it is the pecu-
liar merits of Sanskrit poetry which make it least translatable.

Provided that the main features of Sanskrit phonology described
in Chapter i are understood, it is not necessary to memorise the
whole alphabet before proceeding to Chapter z. The nagari script
is complicated, and is best assimilated gradually; most learners
need several weeks, even months, to read it with complete fluency.

It would be possible to use this book without learning the
nikgarl script at all (making use only of the transliterated versions
of the exercises). This might suit some experienced linguists, anx-
ious to gain a rapid impression of the language. But the ordinary
student is advised against such a course. Transliteration has a dis-
torting effect upon Sanskrit phonology, unless interpreted with a
knowledge either of the nagari script or of phonetics. It is essen-
tial to have a sure grasp of the fact that letters distinguished from
each other only by small diacritic marks represent totally inde-
pendent items in the Sanskrit sound system and that dh, for in-
stance, is no less a single phoneme than d.

Sanskrit is a language with a very different surface structure
from that of English. Each chapter deals with a number of its
more prominent morphological and syntactical features. The
focus of attention should always be firmly upon the Sanskrit -
structure and not upon the English by which it is represented.
Thus in Chapter 4 there should be no danger of an attempt to
translate ‘literally’ into Sanskrit a sentence like ‘it was he who
made this garden’, since neither the relative pronoun nor a verb
‘to be’ has been introduced at this stage. Such a sentence should
be dealt with in the light of what is said in Chapter 4 on the use
of the particle eva.

Those who do not find committing paradigms to memory an im-
possible burden would be well advised to learn the grammar for

d using this book

using Oils book

xxlv

each chapter before tackling the exercises; time spent on this will
be saved in doing the exercises themselves. Some may wish to go
further, and to learn each special vocabulary by heart. If this is not
done, it is at least worth reading slowly through the vocabulary
(preferably aloud) before starting the exercises. As the vocabular-
ies grow longer, it will become increasingly important to handle
Sanskrit alphabetical order: a note on this is given at the begin-
ning of the general Sanskrit-English vocabulary; the complica-
tions caused by the position of anusvara should not give rise to
much difficulty in the (comparatively short) special vocabularies.

It is assumed that the aim of anyone using this book is to acquire
the ability to read original Sanskrit texts. The sentences con-
tained in Exercise 6 onwards are all taken from Sanskrit authors.
They should therefore be treated as interesting objects of study
rather than as hurdles to be overcome. The test of your progress
is not whether you have always achieved versions identical with
those found in the keys (this is hardly possible) but whether you
have fully understood how the key corresponds to the exercise.
Those students who are in need of extra practice will find sup-
plementary English-Sanskrit exercises on the Internet at
www.teachyourself.co.uk/tysanskritsupplementary.htm

A particular difficulty arises over the Sanskrit-English
sentences. Deriving from real utterances, they will sometimes
seem quirky or obscure when divorced from their literary context.
The special vocabularies are designed to reduce this difficulty as
much as possible. There is also the question of the more general
context, i.e. the cultural background, of the material. In this con-
nection all students of Sanskrit should be aware of the existence
of Professor A. L. Basham’s scholarly and yet highly readable ac-
count of ancient Indian civilisation. The Wonder That Was India
(Sidgwick and Jackson, hardback; Fontana, paperback).

Those who do not learn languages easily may prefer to work
through the book once using both parts of each exercise for
translation out of Sanskrit only. Progress could then be con-
solidated by working through all the English-Sanskrit sentences
a second time in the normal way.

Careful attention should be paid to the examples given in the text
of each chapter since these represent the types of sentence to be en-
countered in the exercises. Because each example is followed im-
mediately by a translation, it has not seemed necessary to exclude
an occasional form which anticipates the grammar of a later
chapter (as well as grammatical forms dealt with later in the same
chapter). These forms are explained in the general vocabulary,

where there will also be found any words not listed in the special
vocabulary of the exercises.

For clearness and convenience a topic is usually treated as a
whole in a particular chapter even if one or two aspects of it are
not applicable until later in the book. Observations which may
be passed over rapidly and returned to later are enclosed in
square brackets.

Many Sanskrit words have a number of different meanings. The
vocabularies in this book are not intended as a dictionary, and
generally speaking therefore only meanings relevant to the ma-
terial used in the book are given either in the special or in the
general vocabulary.

Many Sanskrit words are synonymous with several others, at
least in certain of their meanings. Such synonyms have often
been differentiated by near-synonyms in English. The object of
this is merely to guide towards a correct choice of Sanskrit
word in a particular sentence (correct in the sense of corre-
sponding to the original). There need be no head-scratching
over the difference in meaning between a word translated as
‘employ’ and a word translated as ‘engage’: there is none of any
consequence.

Conversely, when a Sanskrit word already met with occurs again
in a related but slightly different sense, it is not put a second time
into the special vocabulary but will be found listed with both
meanings in the general vocabulary.

Certain typographical devices have been used in English versions
of Sanskrit sentences. These should give no trouble if the fol-
lowing principle is borne in mind: rounded brackets (parenthe-
ses) enclose matter not directly represented in the Sanskrit;
square brackets enclose what is not wanted in the English ver-
sion. A colon implies that what follows is a freer version of what
precedes. Thus a sentence is often interrupted by a literally
translated phrase in square brackets and with a colon, followed,
immediately by a more idiomatic or more intelligible rendering
of the same phrase. Square brackets are also used in conjunction
with an oblique stroke to provide an alternative interpretation
of the Sanskrit: e.g. ‘he [/she] is going’. Rounded brackets with
an oblique stroke suggest an alternative phrasing: e.g. ‘he said
“that is so” (/that this was so)’.

Students with linguistic aptitude who are particularly impatient
to grapple with a continuous text may like to experiment with
something simple on their own at any point after Chapter 8.

XXV

using this book

using this book

xxvl

Advice on dictionaries, etc. is given in Appendix i. It would be
advisable to glance ahead at the main features described in the
later chapters, and in particular (if a narrative text is chosen) at
the paradigms of the imperfect and perfect tenses.

Before the introduction of printing into India in the eighteenth
century, the script in which Sanskrit was written and taught var-
ied from place to place in India, and was the same, or almost the
same, as that used in writing the local vernacular language.
Well-travelled paijcfits might understand many forms of the al-
phabet, but the basis of Sanskrit tradition lay in recitation and
oral communication. The widespread dissemination of printed
Sanskrit texts, however encouraged the predominance of one
form of riting, the nagarl (or devanagari) script of central India,
in which the modern languages Hindi and Marathi are also
written. Today even the most traditionally minded papdits
are familiar with it, and Sanskrit publications of more than
local interest are printed in no other script.

All the Indian scripts, however much elaborated in their forms, are
developments over the course of centuries from a single source.
This was the brahml script, written from left to right, first known
to us from the inscriptions of the emperor Asoka (third century
BC). Its origin is unknown. Many suppose it to be an adaptation of
the Semitic alphabet, but by the time of the Asokan inscriptions the
adaptation is already too thorough for positive identification. It re-
flects with considerable accuracy the phonetic structure of the
Indo-Aryan languages. All later Indian scripts inherit its unusual -
graphic system; they differ from it and from each other solely as to
die shapes into which the individual letters have evolved.

Your best way to learn the sounds of Sanskrit is therefore to
leam to write the nagarl script.' In this chapter the sounds and

1 It may be wondered why several references are made in this chapter to the
values of the nagarl letters as used for modem Hindi. The point is that basically
the values are the same for both languages: spelling of the Indian vernaculars

CM chapter 1

the letters are presented side by side. You may think it worth
taking the trouble to learn to write Sanskrit well, even if your
usual English handwriting is a scrawl: you will never need to
cover page after page in a tearing hurry, and in what you do
write you can take pleasure in forming the characters slowly and
with control. You should use black ink and a pen with a nib ca-
pable of producing thick and thin strokes. The most convenient
method is to acquire one of the inexpensive fountain-pens to
which a variety of nibs can be fitted. For preliminary practice,
an ordinary pencil can be sharpened to a broad, flat point.

Because of the way in which an Indian reed pen is cut, the thick
and thin strokes lie in the reverse direction to our own Italic
script: that is, the thick strokes run from bottom left to top right
and the thin strokes from top left to bottom right: /
\. Left-handed writers are thus at less of a disadvantage than in
writing the Italic script; and right-handed writers will need to
hold the pen at a different angle from usual in their hand and
may find it helpful to use a nib with a moderately oblique cut of
the sort normally intended for the left-handed. Right-handed
and left-handed writers will make each stroke from opposite
ends. (In this and what follows it should be emphasised that
what is being taught is not traditional Indian calligraphy— for
which see in particular H. M. Lambert’s Introduction to the
Devanagari Script (London, 1953)— but its adaptation in one of
various possible ways to the modern fountain-pen.) The right-
handed writer should hold the pen along the line of the thick
stroke and pointing to the bottom left; the left-handed should
also hold it along the line of the thick stroke but pointing to the
top right. In as many of the strokes as possible the pen should
be drawn towards you— up towards the right for the right-
handed, down towards the left for the left-handed.

has never been allowed to ossify in the same way as that of Italian and Greek,
in which words with a classical spelling (voce, hugieia ) are given a quite un-
classical pronunciation. Thus Sanskrit karma ‘deed’ changed to Prakrit kamma
and Medieval Hindi k£ma. These distinctions are reflected in the spelling. Only
the latest change, to modem kam with final ‘a mute’, remains unrecorded, and
this can be justified both because final a still has a vestigial, ‘latent’ existence,
like French ‘e rnuet ’, and because of the extreme inconvenience within the Indian
system of writing of marking this particular change. That region which has most
altered the traditional sound values of the alphabet, Bengal, shows an exactly
parallel deviation in the way its pandits (of the older school) actually pronounce
Sanskrit itself. Another reason for mentioning certain features of modem pro-
nunciation is that these may otherwise puzzle the learner when he hears Sanskrit
spoken by an Indian.

In addition to their distinctive element, most letters in the
nSgari script contain a vertical and a horizontal stroke. The
right-handed writer will draw the vertical stroke upwards and
the horizontal stroke to the right. The left-handed will draw
the vertical stroke downwards and the horizontal stroke to the
left. In each letter the distinctive element should be written
first.

This is how a right-handed writer might form the sign 7T ta:

i Distinctive
element

dt ^

z Vertical
stroke

3 Horizontal
stroke

This is how a left-handed writer might form the same sign:

c di tT

This sign is an illustration of the basic principle of the script,
which is halfway in character between an alphabet and a very
regular syllabary. The signs for the consonants such as t do not
stand for themselves alone but possess an inherent short a
(which is by far the commonest of all Sanskrit vowel sounds). If
you wish to represent the consonant t without a following a, you
must add a special cancellation stroke (called a virama) below
the letter: ^t. Thus the word tat meaning ‘it’ or ‘that’ is written

Vowels

To represent vowel sounds other than a various marks are
added above, below or on either side of the basic consonant
sign. There are thirteen vowels in Sanskrit, of which one (|) oc-
curs only in one verb and another (f ) is not very frequent. They
are given below as written after the consonant t. As additional
guides to pronunciation, an appropriate IPA symbol is given in
square brackets and the nearest equivalent sounds in French
and English are added. The French sounds are seldom more in-
accurate than the English, and often very much nearer the
mark.

co chapter 1

t chapter 1

Simple vowels (long and short)

English ‘equivalent

French 'equivalent

IT ta [»]

but

—

nr ta [a:]

father

tard

Hr ti [i]

fit

tci

* ti [i:]

fee

pire

I tu [u]

put

tOUt

\ to [»]

boo

court

W

* N
T »l HI

Syllabic liquids

American ‘purely’ (but nowadays pronounced as in English
‘pretty*)

—(the preceding sound lengthened)—

tab le tab le

% te (i.e. ti)

le:]

Diphthongs

made (esp. Welsh)

ete (but longer)

d tai

[ail

bite

travail

lit to (i.e. t6)

[o:]

rope (esp. Welsh)

fausse

ill tau

[au]

found

caoutchouc

Notes on the vowel sounds 1

To the British in India, the short a sounded like the English vowel
sound in the received pronunciation of ‘but’ and ‘duck’— hence
spellings such as ‘pundit’, ‘suttee’, ‘Punjab’ (paijtjit, satf. Panjab).
This English sound may be taken as a reasonable guide to the
pronunciation, although the Indian sound is somewhat less open.
The corresponding long vowel a is completely open, and thus
these two vowels are distinguished not merely in length but also

1 The sounds of Sanskrit are known to us with considerable accuracy. But diffi-
culties in mastering the less familiar sounds need cause no great distress. Many
Western Sanskritists treat Sanskrit entirely as a written language, and when
forced to pronounce a few words of it do so without distinguishing, for exam-
ple, between retroflex and dental, or between aspirates and non-aspirates. How
much trouble to take is thus a matter of personal choice, although the tendency
nowadays is to pay mote attention to such matters.

in quality (for standard Western Hindi a is half-open, central,
unrounded; % is open, forward of central, unrounded). This dis-
tinction of quality held good over 2000 years ago and was
known to Pacini. 1 On the other hand, die long vowels 1, 0 and f
differ from the corresponding short vowels only in being held
longer. This distinction of pure length has been almost lost in
modem Hindi, and uneducated people regularly confuse i with 1
and u with 0 in their spelling. All three syllabic liquids, r, f and {,
vanished long ago from popular speech, and the memory of how
to pronounce them correctly has faded. Syllabic | occurs only in
some forms of the verb kip and may be ignored. Paqdits nowa-
days tend to pronounce r as if it were ri and f even more im-
probably as rl. (Hence the anglicised spelling Rigveda for
rgveda.) For convenience you may do the same. But it is by no
means impossible to make [r] a syllable in its own right:
American speakers do so in some pronunciations of ‘pretty’
(‘prdy’), and upper- and middle-class Englishmen in some pro-
nunciations of ‘interesting’ (‘intrsting’). 1

Of the four diphthongs, e and o are known as ‘short’ diph-
thongs, and ai and au as corresponding ‘long’ diphthongs.
Historically this is justified: while e and o are descended from
normal Indo-European diphthongs, ai and au correspond
to diphthongs of which the prior element was long (as in
Greek ei,<5i,£M, etc.). But in Sanskrit at an early stage the long di-
phthongs shortened to ordinary diphthongs, and the ordinary
diphthongs narrowed into simple vowel sounds. It is extremely
important to remember however; not only that e and o despite
their pronunciation remain classified as diphthongs (for reasons
that will be apparent when you learn the rules of sandhi) but
also that phonetically and metrically e and o are not short but
long vowels. The only reason they are not usually transliterated
as € and 0 is that since short e and o do not occur at ail in
Sanskrit (because Indo-European e, o and a all converge into
Sanskrit a) the distinction does not have to be marked. The

5

1 The final aphorism of his whole grammar is the shortest grammatical rule in
the world: simply aura a— i.e. ‘/a/ -* [a]’, ‘The sound that (for convenience of
grammatical statement) we have treated as differing from lit only in length is,
in fact, to be realised as [a].’

1 This example is particularly close, in that ancient phoneticians analysed
syllabic r as consisting of the consonant r with a vocalic ‘trace element’ before
and after it— like the two vestigial ‘e’s’ in ‘int’r’sting’. Phonemically, however, r
is a short vowel like any other: a word such as kr-ta ‘done’ is composed of two
equally short (or ‘light’) syllables, e.g. for purposes of verse scansion.

chapter 1

<0 chapter 1

process of diphthong narrowing has continued, and modem
Indian speakers pronounce ai and au as very pinched, closer
sounds (cf. the ultra-genteel pronunciation of English ‘nice’),
some even as monophthongs, so that it is often rather difficult
to distinguish ai from e and au from o.

Notes on the vowel signs

Perhaps the most striking is the sign for short i—f— which is
written before the consonant sign, although the vowel sound it-
self follows the consonant. Originally, in fact, the sign consisted
only of the curl at the top, but to distinguish it more clearly from
other signs the tail was lengthened into a vertical line. If you are
like most Sanskritists, you will often find at first that you have
written a consonant sign without noticing that the next vowel is
an i, for which a space should have been left.

Note that the four diphthong signs are constructed on a regular
principle. The sign for e ' is doubled to make 4 ai; from these o
and au respectively are distinguished by the addition of the verti-
cal bar T, which on its own is used to make a. Usually the signs
are placed above the bar, but very occasionally you may find
them above the consonant sign itself, thus: # to and tau. This
does have the advantage of distinguishing Si to more clearly from
tl. Even so, it should normally be quite possible to tell them
apart: you may occasionally come across bad printing in which it
is difficult. In your own writing you should form the two differ-
ently: the I is a single stroke, the vertical line being once again a
prolonged tail. On the other hand, o is made up of two strokes,
which should be written separately. First draw the vertical bar T
(upwards if right-handed, downwards if left-handed); then draw
the hook\ (to the right if right-handed, to the left if left-handed).

Initial vowel signs

Whenever a vowel is preceded by a consonant, the vowel sign is
attached to the consonant, as described above. This applies not
only within a single word but also when one word begins with
a vowel and the preceding word ends in a consonant. For this
reason, in printing Sanskrit in nagarl (or in any other Indian
script), it is not always possible to make a space between one
word and the next, and it needs practice to spot where one word
ends and the next begins. Even so, a vowel obviously cannot be
combined with a consonant (a) when it begins a sentence, (b)
when it is itself preceded by another vowel— in Sanskrit this is

comparatively rare— and (c) when a word beginning with a
vowel is written on its own, as in a dictionary entry.

For use in these circumstances there is a second set of vowel
signs— initial (or more accurately ‘free-standing’) signs. They
are:

or la, 3»Tor 3JTS; f i, $ I; 3 u, 3> fl; ^ r, ^ f , ^ 1; ^ e; $ ai;
3n or "m o; 3w or wT au

Examples for practice tjfif eti ‘he goes’; atfta ‘past’;
titaii ‘sieve’.

There are two signs in Sanskrit that have no ‘free-standing’ form
because they represent modifications of vowel sounds, one by
nasalisation, the other by adding aspiration.

Anusvira

This is written as a dot at the top right of the syllable (repre-
sented in transliteration by m). It signifies that the vowel sound
is nasalised, probably rather in the way that some French vowel
sounds are nasalised— although the ancient descriptions are not
absolutely dear. Thus <if tom and tt tarn are to be pronounced
very roughly as the French ton and teint respectively.

Examples for practice tam ‘him’; AT tarn ‘her’; titaiim
‘sieve’ (accusative case ); 3FT amta less correct spelling of anta
‘end’. 1

Visarga

This is written as two dots after the syllable (represented in
transliteration by h). Its pronunciation presents more difficulty
to a European than that of anusvara. In theory it is a pure voice-
less aspiration like an English ‘h’, but added after the vowel
sound, whereas of course the English aspirate always precedes a
vowel. To achieve this you might start by pronouncing it as the '
ch in German icb, or even Scottish loch, and then refine away
the ‘rasping’ element until only a pure breathing is left.
Alternatively, you may, like many paijcfits, introduce a fainter

1 When these less correct (or at any rat e less precise) spellings are encountered,
they should not affect pronunciation: dftw pamdita is still to be pronounced
pandita. For a fuller discussion of the ancient value of the anusvara, see
W. S. Allen’s Phonetics in Ancient India, pp. 40-6.

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echo of the preceding vowel sound: e.g. tah as ‘tah a \ #: tlh
as ‘tlh 1 ’ (which is like English ‘tee-hee’ only A you put all the
stress on the first syllable of the latter).

Examples for practice tatah ‘thereupon’; rfT: tah ‘those
women’; & taih ‘by them’; 3IT: ah ‘ah!’.

Consonants

All the vowel sounds of Sanskrit have now been mentioned. Their
number is less than the number of vowel sounds in English. Of
consonants, on the other hand, Sanskrit has a far greater number
than English. This is principally due to the proliferation of plosive
consonants (or ‘stops’). These the grammarians grouped into five
series according to their place of articulation, each series com-
prising four stops together with the related nasal consonant:

Stops and nasals

Voiceless

Voiced

Unaspirated

Aspirate

Unaspirated

Aspirate

Nasal

Velar

V ka

tjr kha

nga

7 gha

7 ha

Palatal

7 ca

9 cha

* ja

F jha

7 fia

Retroflex

z ta

Z tha

7 da

7 dha

¥?a

Dental

if ta

v tha

Z da

7 dha

7 na

Labial

V pa

pha

7 ba

*bha

7 ma

Unaspirated voiceless stops k, c, t, t, p

These really are unaspirated, unlike their English equivalents. It
is often not realised that one of the ways in which, for instance,
the English word ‘key’ differs from the French qui is that the
English k is followed by an aspirate, or ‘6-sound’ (which, how-
ever; disappears when the k is preceded by an s, as in ‘skill’).
Unless you speak a language such as French in which the voice-
less stops are never aspirated, you may have difficulty in elimi-
nating this aspiration from your pronunciation.

k as k in ‘kill’— better; as c in French coup
as cb in ‘chill’— better; as c in Italian voce
\P as p in ‘pill’— better; as p in French pique

Retroflex 1 and dental

Sanskrit distinguishes two types of t, d, etc. The dental series is
the type found in European languages other than English. A
French t or d is made by striking the edge of the teeth with the
tip of the tongue. (In other words, the place of articulation is the
same as for die English th in ‘thin’.) An English t or d is made
with the tongue drawn a little further back, so that the tip strikes
against the front of the palate or the teethridge, instead of
against the teeth. This English t seems to Indians to be their
retroflex t, rather than a dental t— and when transcribing
English words into the nagarl script they employ retroflex con-
sonants instead of dentals: e.g. the English word ‘tip’ would be ^
written fe^tip. However the true Indian retroflex consonant is ^

made rather by curling the tongue up and striking the palate

(perhaps at a point further back) with the very tip or even the
underside of the tongue.

^t as t in English ‘try’

<tt as the first t in French ‘tout’

Examples for practice tat ah ‘bank’; ifaf pita ‘drunk’;

pacati ‘he cooks’; kfipah ‘a well’.

Voiceless aspirates kh, ch, th, th, ph

These are much more strongly aspirated than the English voice-
less stops k, t, etc., which fall between two stools. However, it is
easier to add aspiration than to take it away: pronounce ‘up-
heaval’ first in two distinct parts and then more rapidly, trying
to run the p on to the following syllable. It should be plainly un-
derstood that all these sounds are merely aspirated forms of
those in the preceding column: ph is not as in ‘physic’, th NOT
as in ‘thin’, kh NOT as ch in Scottish ‘loch’.

Examples for practice 3W atha ‘hereupon’; tfrs pftham ‘stool’;
tRZT phata ‘serpent’s hood’; T3FT khata ‘dug up’; »lfcd chotita .
‘torn off’.

1 A frequent synonym of ‘retroflex’ is ‘cerebral’. This is an unfortunate transla-
tion of the Sanskrit terra mQrdhanya ‘made in the head’, itself unusually impre-
cise. The word ‘cerebral’ is still in common use among Sanskritists, but since
retroflexion as a phonetic phenomenon is by no means confined to Sanskrit, I
have thought it wiser to adopt the more accurate term preferred by phoneticians
as being more likely to prevail in the end.

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10

Unaspirated voiced stops g, j, d, d, b

This is the simplest series. The corresponding English letters will
serve as a guide. The only problem is in preserving the distinc-
tion described above between retroflex d and dental d.

Examples for practice TO: gajah ‘elephant’; TO jada ‘numb’;
«fc*T bijam ‘seed’; dadati ‘he gives’.

Voiced aspirates gh, jh, dh, dh, bh

These are all equally troublesome. They are, of course, aspirated
forms of the preceding series. The difficulty is that, since the letters
are voiced, the aspiration must be a voiced aspiration. The last let-
ter of the Sanskrit alphabet is ? ha, the Sanskrit h, which is also
voiced. (The only voiceless h in Sanskrit is the rather special vis-
arga, described above.) The key to the pronunciation of all these
letters is learning to pronounce a voiced h instead of the voiceless
English h 1 (it is true that some English speakers make voiced h a
rather infrequent allophone of h—e. g. in the word ‘inherent’).

Voiced sounds are those made with a vibration of the vocal cords.
Some consonants are voiced, others voiceless. All vowels are
voiced, unless you whisper them. An extremely easy way to tell
whether a sound is voiced or not is to put your hands firmly over
your ears: start by making a prolonged sss sound, which is voice-
less; then make a zzz sound, which is voiced, and you will hear the
vibration of the vocal cords very plainly as a droning in your ears.
Lengthen the ordinary English h into a prolonged breathing and it
will be quite obviously voiceless. The task now is to modify this
breathing until you can hear that it is accompanied by the dron-
ing. The sound you are aiming at is similar to the sound children
sometimes use when they want to make someone jump. The
voiced h, once produced, can easily be combined with g, j etc., and
practice will soon smooth the sound down until you do not seem
to be trying to give your listeners a series of heart attacks.

Examples for practice STORf: Sgtatah ‘blow’; yt cfi jh atiti ‘at
once’; TO bSdham ‘certainly’; tnj dhatu ‘element’; bodhati
‘he awakes’; TO: bhagah ‘portion’; fa'te bibheda ‘he split’.

1 1 believe this to be so, from having taught myself in this way before I had ever
heard a voiced aspirate pronounced correctly. On the other hand, in India ? ha
itself is no longer a voiced sound, and consequently an Englishman I met there,
who had lived in the country for several years, had difficulty when asked in pro-
ducing a plain voiced h sound, even though he could pronounce the voiced as-
pirate stops perfectly.

Nasals h, ft, n, n, m

Velar n and palatal n are used almost entirely with stops of their
own class, e.g. arajjt ahgam‘limb’; panca ‘five’, ahga sounds
rather like English ‘anger’— or ‘hunger’ without the h; panca is
rather like ‘puncher’. Between n and n a distinction of retroflex
and dental is regularly made by paijcjhs, although in Hindi this
distinction— unlike that between retroflex and dental stops — has
been lost, except as a (learned) spelling pronunciation.

Examples for practice trnam ‘grass’; : janah ‘people’; tlfit
mati ‘thought’.

A note on handwriting

In practising the nagari letters, the most important general
principle for the acquisition of good handwriting is to give the
letters ‘body’ by keeping the distinctive portion of each full and
uncramped. Too often, beginners produce a few tiny curls and
loops in an acreage of white. The secret is to divide the vertical
bar not into two parts but into three, so that the distinctive
portion of letters such as ^ and <f occupy at least the lower
two-thirds, and letters such as tl, V and at least the upper
two-thirds:

vd d q M '*■!

Semivowels

Four sounds are classified as semivowels. They and the vowels
associated with them are given places in four of the five series:

palatal

retroflex

dental

labial

ya

Tra

etla

va

corresponding to the vowels

M

il

rf

1

99

uG

y is often pronounced, nowadays at least, more lightly and un-
obtrusively than the English y in ‘yes’, r is usually a tapped
sound similar to an Italian r. It was described as being alveolar
(against the arch of the gums) rather than fully retroflex.
(However; for convenience of grammatical statement, all mem-
bers of the ‘retroflex’ group are treated as truly retroflex.)

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Speakers of Southern or BBC English should be careful always
to give r its full value, and should guard against letting it colour
their pronunciation of a preceding vowel: distinguish karma
‘deed’, which approximately rhymes with an American’s pro-
nunciation of ‘firmer’, from kima ‘desire’, which approximately
rhymes with an Englishman’s ‘farmer’. 1 is dental, and so even
more like a French than an English /. It does not have the ‘dark’
quality which in varying degrees an English / may have. In ori-
gin, v was a true labial, i.e. a bilabial like the English w, and it
would be just as appropriate to transliterate it by w as by v. In
most of India it is pronounced now as a labio-dental, that is to say
with the upper teeth and the lower lips, and this seems to have
been so from an early period. The best method is to try to pro-
duce a V sound’ but using the upper teeth instead of the upper
lip. If you employ a full-blooded labio-dental fricative like the
English v, it will sound odd when v is combined with another
consonant, e.g. in the word svastika.

In combination with K.t, the signs for u and 0 are written in a
rather different form, beside instead of below the consonant:

^ ru ^ rfl: e.g. rfipam ‘form’

The (rare) combination of consonant Tr with vocalic ^ r is made
with the aid of the conjunct form of \r described below:

^ rr: e.g. nir-rna ‘debtless’

Examples for practice ®rar chSya ‘shade’; rlti ‘style’; vTO:
layah ‘dissolution’; ^T: vlrah ‘hero’.

Sibilants

Three of the five series include voiceless sibilants:

palatal

sa

retroflex

«r

sa

dental

sa

Dental s is

like an

English s. The other two sibilants are con-

founded in modern popular pronunciation: they are similar to
an English sh as in ‘ship’. You may like to make your own dis-
tinction between the two on the basis that one is palatal and the
other retroflex.

Note carefully that there is no voiced sibilant, i.e. no z of any
kind, in Sanskrit: s is always to be pronounced as the ss in ‘hiss’
(so, for instance, in tasya ‘of him’), never as the s in ‘his’.

Examples for practice 3TOF1T && ‘hope’; 5)5: dosah ‘fault’; T5:
rasah ‘flavour’.

13

Voiced ft

?ha

As mentioned above, h was in classical times a voiced aspirate
sound. Nowadays, however; it has lost its voicing and corre-
sponds to an English h, although the other voiced aspirates (the
five stops) are a fully preserved feature of most modern Indo-
Aryan languages. The reason for the loss of voicing in this one
case is no doubt connected with the fact that this sound, unlike
the other five, is not in phonemic contrast with voiceless and
other counterparts (dh has to be distinguished from th and also
from d, and so on). The voiceless visarga appears only at the end
of a syllable, exactly where h does not, and at any rate visarga
disappeared completely from Middle Indo-Aryan onwards.

The vowels r and f are usually written within rather than below
this consonant: ? hr, if hf.

Examples for practice hata ‘killed’; ?? iha ‘here’; 511 bahu
‘forearm’; ??! hrta ‘taken’.

Conjunct consonants

In the foregoing description of the alphabet, words in which one
consonant immediately follows another have been avoided as far
as possible. The only two printed in nagarl were angam and
panca. The use of the virama stroke to cancel the inherent
a of 3 Aa and 5 fia is, however; a device contrary to the princi-
ples of the script, to be used only in the direst emergencies. 1

The proper way to represent clusters of two or more consonants
(even when the cluster is divided between two words) is to com-
bine them into a single sign whose constituent elements are more .

1 In the representation of the early Middle Indo-Aryan dialects for which the
brihmi script is often thought originally to have been designed, the problem of
consonant clusters was not particularly acute. The phonology of the dialects
limited these to doublings and combinations with class nasals, both of which
might be dealt with by special means. The writing of Hindi, however, which has
borrowed many words direct from Sanskrit as well as from foreign sources,
demands an equally wide range of conjuncts— and this poses a considerable
problem in the construction of Hindi typewriters, soluble only with some sac-
rifice of typographical elegance.

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<14 | or less easily discernible. In this way angam and panca should
have been represented by and TO. The general principles for
combining consonants are given below.

Those consonants from which a vertical bar can easily be sepa-
rated lose this bar as the initial consonant of the group, and con-
join horizontally:

= nr ggha; ^r = ttr ghya; = ?nr tsya; nma

Where (a) the vertical bar does not exist or cannot easily be de-
tached, or (b) the distinctive portion of the following consonant
does not provide a convenient point of anchorage, the letters are
conjoined vertically, the initial consonant being on top. In this
case the letters are reduced in size to preserve symmetry:

(a) = f nga; = $ dga; = % ttha; hla;

<ljTi — ^ Ida

(b) = ? nca; ^ = Sf ghna; = <5T tna; = nr pta;

'ip = S sta

Minor modifications

A straight line is substituted for the distinctive portion of It ta
and the loop of <S» ka in some frequent combinations:

rp = ^r tta; kta (for tra and kra see below)

For convenience, *T may be substituted for 9T sa in forming vari-
ous combinations:

= « sea; sla; 7^+ 3 = ^ or ^ su

The letter n ya, although frequently the second member of a con-
junct, is never written below another. Instead, an open form
or 7) is used:

= OT kya; = OT tya; ^TsOT dya
(There is a similar open form for ma: e.g.^j nma; V dma.)

Combinations with T ra

The forms ^ ru and ^ rQ have been noted above. The isolate
form T ra is never used in consonant combinations. As the initial
member of a cluster, a semi-circle f is substituted and placed at
the extreme top right of the syllable:

H rta; ^ = $ rya; = tgf rkhlm

At the middle or end of a cluster a short diagonal / is substi-
tuted:

^ = IT pra; ^ = * tra; = a? or 3* kra; srya

The combinations ksa and /da

Two signs representing conjunct consonants cannot be resolved
into constituent parts.

tjf or er ksa is the equivalent of the roman x— e.g.
LaksmI, the goddess of prosperity, occasionally transliterated as
‘Laxmi’. In some parts of India 9 ksa is pronounced as kkha or
ccha.

? jfia: the pronunciation of this varies widely. In some places, for
instance, it is like gya, in others dnya. The palatal series is de-
rived from original velar sounds (cf. jan ‘to be bom’ with Greek
genos). The point about jn is that it is a palatalisation so to
speak en bloc of an original gn. Thus jn& ‘to know’ is connected
with Latin co-gno-scere and English ‘know’. Perhaps the most
appropriate of the modern pronunciations to adopt is therefore
gnya, which (by adding y to gn) does crudely represent a palata-
lisation.

A list of conjunct consonants is given at the end of this chapter.

Doubling of consonants

Where the same consonant is written twice, it should be held
longer in pronunciation. This happens in English, but usually
only between words (or at least morphemes)— cf. the s+s sound
in ‘less soap’, the t+t in ‘hat-trick’ or the n+n in ‘greenness’.
Doubled aspirates are not written as such: rather, the first ap-
pears in unaspirated form. Thus, while ^g doubles to ’T.gg, ^
gh doubles to ^ggh.

Miscellaneous

Other signs

Manuscripts were written continuously, and neither paragraphs
nor chapters needed to begin on a fresh line. The only marks of
sentence punctuation are a single bar I (called a danda) and a
double bar II. Their primary function is to mark respectively the
halfway point and the end of a stanza of verse. In prose passages
the single bar is used to mark off sentences and die double bar
usually to mark off paragraphs.

chapter 1

A small circle above the line indicates an abbreviation. Thus
arnmt: °^r aghstah-tam-tena should be read as agh&tah

aghatam aghatena. Similarly, yTf>° stands, in context, for the
name Sakuntala.

The avagraha (‘separation’) X is nowadays restricted to marking
the disappearance of an initial short a. Thus so >vagra-

hah ‘that separation’.

Numerals

The numerical signs are very simple, since we owe our modern
zero-based system to India (by way of the Arabs). The shapes of
the numerals vary with the shapes of the letter. For the nagari
script they are:

* * * * k 4

11 3 4 5 6

1984

*9 C S
789

1066

o

o

The figure 2 after a word (sometimes found in books printed in
India) implies that the word is to be repeated:

aufa aho aho ‘oh, oh!’

Names of the letters

Letters are designated either by their own sound alone or, more
explicitly, with the addition of the suffix kara (‘making’). The in-
herent short a is added to the consonants:

$ or fasiT I or ikdra ‘long *T or ^i<w< ga or gak&ra ‘the letter
S’-

The letter \r, however has a special name: repha ‘tear-

ing’)-

Transliteration

The letters and diacritic marks chosen to represent Sanskrit
sounds in the roman alphabet are, of course, purely a matter of
convention, but a convention by now so firmly established that
it has not been deviated from here even to choose the one sig-
nificant (but less common) variant, namely q for $, even though
this would be less confusing than having three kinds of s and
more immediately recognisable as a palatal letter.

This and the representation of anusvara by m instead of m are ITT
probably the only two deviations still to be met with in special- '
ist works. However there are certain nineteenth-century devices
still on occasion retained for the benefit of the general reader.

They are:

ri, rl for W r, jf f; ch for ^c, and chh for S^ch; sh for \s (or
even (or ?^s)

A further practice, now thoroughly discredited, whereby palatal
letters are represented by italicised velars and retroflex by itali-
cised dentals (e.g. ka for ca, dha for 7 dha), has unfortunately
also to be mentioned, since it was followed in the Sacred Books g
of the East series and by Macdonell in his dictionary (though not
in his grammar).

Prosody

Sanskrit verse is quantitative: it is based, that is to say (as in
Latin and Greek), on a regular arrangement of long and short
syllables and not, as in English, of stressed and unstressed sylla-
bles. To distinguish long and short syllables more clearly from
long and short vowels the former may be referred to as ‘heavy’
and ‘light’ (corresponding to the Sanskrit terms guru and vT$
laghu).

A syllable is heavy if its vowel is long, or if its vowel, though
short, is followed (even in another word) by two or more
consonants. Thus mrMlRn UniV pasyami gr&mau ‘I see two villages’
contains five heavy syllables ( ).

A syllable is light if its vowel is short and not followed by
more than one consonant. 3W TOfir atha pacati ‘next he cooks’

contains five light syllables (~ ). (t^th is, of course, only a

single consonant.) AnusvSra and visarga are never followed by
a vowel, and a sell able containing either of them is always
heavy. <RT: tatah kupam gacchati ‘then he goes to the -

well’ scans

In ancient times Sanskrit was characterised by a tonic, or pitch,
accent: one syllable in a word was pronounced with a higher
musical pitch than the others. This is an Indo-European feature
preserved also in ancient Greek, in which language parallel
words usually have a corresponding accent (cf. srutas
‘heard’ with klutos). In Greek the accent, although retained,
changed from one of musical pitch to one of stress. In Sanskrit
the pitch accent, which was kept alive for some centuries after

chapter 1

Panini, finally disappeared and was replaced (as in Latin) by a
regularly positioned stress accent bearing no relation at all to
the original Indo-European accent. There are various graphical
systems for representing the ancient accent in Vedic works, and
it is only in certain methods of reciting the Vedas that any at-
tempt is made nowadays to reproduce the pitch accent in pro-
nunciation.

The position of the modem stress accent is much as in Latin, the
principal difference being that it may go one syllable further
back. Thus the stress falls on the penultimate syllable if that is
heavy, failing which it falls on the antepenultimate if the latter is
heavy. If both penultimate and antepenultimate are light, it falls
on the fourth syllable from the end. Thus StraFT: agh&tah, <suufM
Sghatena, TlfRITO $akuntaU, 3KIJRI& ldmayate, WwT gamayati.

However there is a tendency for all heavy syllables to receive a
heavier stress than any of the light syllables. The key to reciting
Sanskrit is to dwell exaggeratedly on every heavy syllable (and,
in particular to draw out long vowels to a great length) while
passing lightly and rapidly over all light syllables.

List of conjunct consonants

(For reference only: most of the combinations listed are easily
recognisable.)

TO k-ka, TOST k-kha, TOT k-ca, TOT k-na, JB k-ta, WI k-t-ya,
k-t-ra, TP k-t-r-ya, TO k-t-va, TO k-na, TO* k-n-ya, TO k-ma,
TO k-ya, TO or TO k-ra, TO or TO k-r-ya, k-la, TO k-va,
TOST k-v-ya, orTO k-sa, TO k-s-ma, TO k-s-ya, TO k-s-va.—
TO kh-ya, TO kh-ra.— TO g-ya, IT g-ra, TO g-r-ya.— TO gh-na,
TO gh-n-ya, TO gh-ma, TO gh-ya, V gh-ra.— $ n-ka— U n-k-ta,
n-k-t-ya, n-k-ya, n-k-sa, If n-k-s-va, % n-kha,
% n-kh-ya, jp ri-ga, fpTO n-g-ya, f n-'gha, fTO n-gh-ya, f n-gh-ra,
5 n-na, n-na, ^h-ma, n-ya.

c-ca, TO c-cha, TO c-ch-ra, H c-fia, TO c-ma, TO c-ya.—
TOT ch-ya, TJ ch-ra. —TO j-ja, TO j-jha, ?T or TO j-fia, TO j-fi-ya,
TO j-ma, TO j-ya, H j-ra, TO j-va.— If n-ca, TO n-c-ma, TO n-c-ya,
TO n-cha, TO n-ja, *TO n-j-ya.

TO t-ka, TO t-k-ra, 3 t-ta, TO t-t-ya, ¥ t-t-ra, TO t-t-va,
TO t-tha, O t-na, TO t-n-ya, TO t-pa, TO t-p-ra, TO t-ma,
TOT t-m-ya, TO t-ya, S or3 t-ra, TO t-r-ya, TO t-va, TO t-sa, TTO t-s-
na, TOO t-s-n-ya. — TO th-ya. — ? d-ga, $ d-g-ra, $ d-gha, ^ d-gh-ra,
? d-da. If d-d-ya, 3 d-dha, « d-dh-ya, 3 d-na, I d-ba, 3 d-bha.
Iff d-bh-ya, a d-ma, O d-ya, 5 d-ra, 30 d-r-ya, ? d-va,
5*T d-v-ya.— ST dh-na, 5RI dh-n-ya, or dh-ma, or dh-ya, 0 dh-ra,
OT dh-r-ya, TO dh-va.— TO n-ta, TOT n-t-ya, TO n-t-ra, TO n-da,
TO n-d-ra, TO n-dha, TO n-dh-ra, 3 n-na, TO n-pa, TO n-p-ra, 41 n-
ma, TO n-ya, IT n-ra, TO n-sa.

TO p-ta, W p-t-ya, 7 p-na, or p-pa, or p-ma, or p-ya, TT p-ra,
3 p-la, TO p-va, or p-sa, oar p-s-va.— or b-gha, TO b-ja, TO b-da,
or b-dha, ¥ b-na, or bb-ba, or bha, o*T b-bh-ya, or b-ya, ¥ b-ra,
¥ b-va.— U bh-na, «T bh-ya, V bh-ra, Of bh-va.— ¥ m-na,
OT m-pa, *JT m-p-ra, TO m-ba, TO m-bha, or m-ma, or m-ya,
¥ m-ra, TO m-la, TO m-va.

or y-ya, TO y-va.— TO> 1-ka, FT 1-pa, FT 1-ma, FT 1-ya, ^ 1-la,
v¥ 1-va, F? 1-ha.— or v-na, or v-ya, ¥ v-ra, ^ v-va.

a s-ca, «T s-c-ya, O s-na, FT s-ya, O s-ra, TO s-r-ya, 1 " s-la,
a s-va, &l s-v-ya, W s-sa.— TO s-ta, ®¥ s-t-ya, ^ s-t-ra, W ?-t-r-ya,
¥ s-t-va, TO s-tha, or s-na, ¥J¥ s-n-ya,TO s-pa, TOs-p-ra, or s-ma,
or 's-ya, TO s-va.— TO>s-ka, TO s-kha, TO s"-ta, TO s-t-ya, F s-t-ra,
TO s-t-va, FT s-tha, TO s-na, TO s-n-ya, TO s-pa, TO s-pha,
OT s-ma, TO s-m-ya, FT s-ya, O s-ra, TO s-va, TO s-sa.

¥> h-na, Jffh-na, ¥F h-ma, ?T h-ya, 3 h-ra, <? h-la, 2 h-va.

Exercise la (Answers will be found at the beginning of the
key in nagarl to the English-Sanskrit exercises.)

Transcribe into the nagarl script the following words, some of
which may be familiar to you already:

maharaja, Slta, R a van a, maithuna, devanSgari, himalaya,
Siva, Kalidasa, guru, Asoka, sams&ra, upanisad, Sakuntala,
caitya, pinda, manusmrti, Visnu, Kautilya, samsk&ra,
anusvara, sakti, Asvaghosa, Vitsyayana, vedanta, brahman,
cakra, Candragupta, kamasfltra, mantra, visargah, nirvana,
dharmasistra, BhSratavarsa, yaks a, vijhanavadin

Transcribe the following sentences, remembering that in the
nagarl script a word ending in a consonant (h and m apart) will
be joined with the next word:

i ko niyogo >nusthlyatam 2 evam nv etat 3 anantarakaranl-

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20

yam idanlm ajiiapayatv aryah 4 atha kataram punar rtum sam 3 -
sritya gasySmi 5 nanu prathamam evaryenajnaptam abhijfia-
nasakutalam namapGrvam natakam abhiniyatam id 6 ita itah
priyasakhyau 7 sakhi £akuntale tvatto >pi tStakanvasyisra-
mavrksakah priyl id tarkayami yena navamalikakusuma-
paripelavapi tvam etesv alavalap&ranesu niyukta

Exercise 1b (Answers will be found at the beginning of the
key in Roman to the English-Sanskrit exercises.)

nfraR 1 1 tjgwKti 1 Traranr 1 pm i mftr i 'for i uifciPi i mg

1 4»ivl) 1 1 fifgiT 1 dforim i srfrr i i ufuaa i tpBra i

up 1 vtohim 1 jpth? igsr 1 i iingm

1 3 t 4 hMi«n 1 ufm 1 aradtaf i mHInam i aran? i i gwr 1 i

1 TO 5 RT 11

#i4tol*itt>M$g*HnnHrn ^ nf^na w : i ? i
3NfllM'l4w'l dv'hM'l Iil34<4l g* UlUflllW I * I
I I

anr ar ra<Md)tRfamKR«ir«iirm‘) i $ i

4i-wii^m di^fliwweii^fi T: fenfir g npdte nt ga«p«h : n \a n

Roots and verb classes

Descriptions of Sanskrit verbs are based upon the verbal root
(Sanskrit «n§ d hatu ‘element’). Just as in English we might
analyse the forms ‘bear, bearing, borne, burden’ as having a
common element ‘b-r’, so the Indian grammarians described
the forms VTfif bharati, STOTT babMra, TOV^ bhriyate, bhrta
as being derived from the verbal root bhr. The verbal roots
are not words in their own right but convenient grammatical
fictions.

Roots are divided into ten classes according to the way in
which their present tense is formed. These ten classes are analo-
gous to the four conjugations of Latin or French, but it is es-
sential to grasp that this classification refers solely to the
method of forming the present tense and its derivatives: it has
no relevance in forming, for example, the aorist or the past
participle.

Verbs of classes I, IV, VI and X differ from each other only in
the relationship that their present stem bears to the root; in all
these classes the present stem, once formed, is thereupon con-
jugated according to the ‘thematic paradigm’ (see grammatical
section, Appendix 2,). The remaining classes are called ‘athe-
matic’ because the personal endings are added without a con-
necting or ‘thematic’ vowel. Thus ^ bhr, which is exceptional
in that it may be conjugated either in class I or in class III (redu-
plicated class), in the latter instance adds the third person sin-
gular ending m ti directly to the reduplicated stem raV^bibhar:
Rrofif bibhar-ti ‘he bears’; but to the class I present stem V^bhar
thematic a is added before the personal ending: VTfif bhar-a-ti
‘he bears’.

chapter 2

Vowel gradation: guna and vrddhi

The present stem V^bhar is derived from the root ^ bhr by a
regular process of ‘vowel gradation’. The three forms if bkr,
bhar and MT\bh&r, found in bhrta (past participle) ‘borne’,
TOfif bharati (present) ‘he bears’ anil aUTT babhara (perfect) ‘he
bore’, exemplify a characteristic pattern of vowel alternation in
Sanskrit words. Indian grammarians described this phenomenon
by saying that 3T^ar and 3TT\ar were two successively strengthened
grades of the vowel VS r. To the first of these, 3T\ar, they gave the
name ’jof guna; to the second, 3fl^ar, the name ^ vrddhi. The
Sanskrit vowels are arranged in this analysis as follows:

basic grade a,& i, I u,6 r,f 1

guna a e o ar al

vrddhi a ai au ar al

From the point of view of the comparative philologist, the
middle grade, guna, is the normal grade and the others result
from weakening and strengthening. Failure to appreciate this
landed Indian grammarians in some complications, since the
regular pattern of strengthening from the basic to the guna
grade presented above did not occur in ail roots. If we compare
the verbs Wlfil sravad ‘flows’, vftqRl ghosati ‘proclaims’ and
vihRi svapati (or fciRjRi svapiti) ‘sleeps’ with their past partic-
iples sruta, ghusta and ipt supta, we may detect the gen-
eral principle that the formation of the past participle involves
elimination of the element a-srav/sru, ghos/ghus, svap/sup (his-
torically e and o may be taken to represent ay and av, and y, r, 1, v
to represent consonantal alternants of the vowels i, r, 1, u). If,
however we take the reduced form as shown in the past partici-
ple as our starting-point (which in principle is what the Indian
gram marians did), we shall on the analogy of srav ad and
ghosati predict *sopati instead of the correct svapati.
For this reason the root of verbs such as the last is formed
according to the middle grade (thus root svap ‘sleep’ as
against ^ sru and iRghus), and the appearance of reduced
forms such as msup is accounted for by a special process called
samprasdrana (‘vocalisation [of the semi-vowel]’).
Other verbs such as if^gam ‘go’ and ^man ‘think’ are also
quoted in what is essentially their middle grade: this is because
the Indo-European vowels m and n (the sonant nasals) were re-
placed in Sanskrit by a short a (the past participles are TO gata,
from *grnta, and TO mata, from *mnta), so that a reduced form
of the root might be insufficiently distinctive.

rhe foregoing will help to explain why a, which is essentially a
puna vowel, appears in the table also as a basic-grade vowel
whose guna equivalent is identical.

Classes I, IV and VI

The present stems of these classes are formed according to the
following basic principles:

Class I

The root is strengthened to the guna grade and is followed by
the thematic vowel a: *J^suc, socati ‘he grieves’.

Roots containing a therefore remain unchanged: a^vad, aafif va-
dati ‘he says’.

If they immediately precede the thematic a, the vowels e, o, and ai
appear as ay, av and ay respectively : fa ji, aafif jayati ‘he wins’.

Roots containing a long vowel followed by a consonant, or a
short vowel followed by two consonants, remain unchanged:
jlv, jlvati ‘he lives’. (Note: This is a general limitation upon
the operation of guna, and it applies in other formations as well.)

Important irregular formations are gam, TOBfa gacchati ‘he
goes’ and W sthS, filtdfil tisthati ‘he stands’.

Class IV

The suffix ya is added to the root, which usually remains un-
strengthened: ^Tnrt, nrtyati ‘he dances’.

Class VI

The root remains unstrengthened and is followed by the the-
matic vowel a. (Historically, it remains unstrengthened because
the tonic accent fell not on die root, as in class I, but on the the-
matic a.) faar likh, ftnafir likhati ‘he writes’; flS^prach,
prcchati (by samprasarana) ‘he asks’.

Conjugation of the present indicative

The Sanskrit verb distinguishes, without the aid of pronouns,
not only first, second and third persons but also three numbers:
singular dual and plural. Dual terminations are also found in
Greek, but rarely, and applied only to things naturally paired to-
gether. In Sanskrit the use of the dual is obligatory, both in

chapter 2

24

nouns and in verbs, wherever two people or things are in que$*‘
tion. The plural is restricted in application to three or more.

The present indicative of the verb 41 nl ‘lead’ is:

Singular

i st person

naySmi
I lead

ind person
TOftr nayasi
you (sg.) lead

3 rd person

TOfir nayati
he leads

Dual

: naySvah
we two lead

TOST: nayathah
you two lead

’istti: nayatah
the two of them
lead

Plural

TOW: nay&mah
we lead

TOST nayatha
you (pi.) lead

TOpJ nayanti
they lead

The order in which you learn this paradigm is a matter of taste.
Traditionally in Sanskrit the third person (which is called
the first) is taken as representative of the tense, and the order
of recitation would be nayati, nayatah, nayanti, nayasi, etc.
However Westerners usually adopt the European order (as in
Latin) nayUmi, nayasi, nayati, nayUvah, etc.

The English distinction between simple present and continuous
present does not exist in Sanskrit. TOfir nayati means both ‘he
leads’ and ‘he is leading’. In addition, the present indicative may
express an immediate intention or proposal: ijWlfil prcchami ‘I’ll
ask’, TOJW: gacch&mah ‘let’s go’.

Prefixes

Verbs may undergo the addition of various prefixes, which may
modify, sometimes considerably and sometimes not at all, the
basic meaning:

fulfil

visati

he enters

pravisati

he enters

TOle?ifir

upavisad

he sits down

srcefir

gacchad

he goes

aunrceRi

igacchad

he comes

surarosfir

avagaccbati

he understands

; Negation is expressed by the word 7 na:

1 33ft na vadati he does not say, he is not saying

Sandhi

In English a word that we spell only in one way may be pro-
nounced differently according to its position in a sentence. Thus
the definite article ‘the’ is pronounced with a neutral vowel (8a)
before consonants, ‘the man, the hill’, and with a short i vowel
(31) before vowels, ‘the owl, the end’. Moreover^ in separating
this word out in order to talk about it, we may use another O
a lengthened vowel, and say ‘the definite article 3f . We have |IN^
examples like the English non-standard ‘doam be stupid’. Here
the word ‘don’t’, having lost its final t, changes its n to m, which
is more like the following b (put more technically, the alveolar
nasal n is replaced by the bilabial nasal m before the bilabial
stop b). A different sort of example involves not a separate word
but a ‘morpheme’, for example ‘plural s’: so, the plural of ‘cat’
is ‘cats’, but the plural of ‘dog’ is ‘dogz’, although in standard
spelling of the latter the same letter s, is used— the general rule
is that voiceless s is added to voiceless consonants (‘cats’, ‘pups’)
and voiced z to voiced consonants and vowels (‘dogs’, ‘toes’),
except that if the word itself ends in a sibilant the suffix takes
the form ‘-iz’ (‘bases’, ‘phrases’). Similar sound changes occurred
in Latin words, as the spelling of their English derivatives will
indicate— compare for instance ‘induce’ and ‘conduce’ with ‘im-
press’ and ‘compress’.

The reason underlying such variations is one of euphony or ease
of utterance, the fact that what is a convenient sound in one en-
vironment may not be at all convenient in another. The phe-
nomenon is referred to (very often even in talking about
languages other than Sanskrit) by the term sandhi, a Sanskrit
word meaning ‘juncture’. What we are concerned with at pres-
ent, as in the first two examples above, is external sandhi, i.e. the
changes in the appearance of complete words when they come
together, or make a juncture, in a sentence. In Sanskrit these
changes were particularly widespread and striking, which is why
the word sandhi has become generally current among phoneti-
cians. They were fully analysed by the ancient grammarians and
are extensively reflected in the orthography. This is not neces-
sarily a good thing. Writing ‘tho’ and ‘thi’ or ‘cats’ and ‘dogz’
in English would obscure the fact that a single word or mor-
pheme is in question— though it would be marginally helpful to

chapter 2

chapter 2

I foreigners in learning to pronounce the language. Beginners in
' Sanskrit, being more concerned with reading and writing than
with pronunciation, will find the operation of the rules of san-
dhi a considerable obstacle in the earliest stages of learning the
language, but one that is fairly quickly surmounted because met
with at every turn.

Use of the sandhi grids

The approach to the problem adopted in this book is primarily
a practical one. Instead of attempting to master in one go all the
phonetic principles involved in euphonic combination, you are
S I encouraged to make use of Table z.i, where all the relevant
combinations of final and initial sounds are set out in tabular
form. In addition, certain preliminary remarks to aid you in
using the tables are here offered.

When sandhi is made between two words, the first may end in a
vowel or a consonant and the second may begin with a vowel or
a consonant. Four main classes of sandhi are thus distinguished.

1 Vowel + vowel

When two vowels come together they coalesce, often into a single
vowel. The body of the vowel grid represents the combination of
the two vowels. Thus tatra followed by iva is written as
tatreva ‘as if there’. Most of the features of vowel sandhi
will make sense if you remember that historically the Sanskrit
diphthongs e, o represent ay, av (or ai, au) and the diphthongs
ai, au represent iy, iv (or ai, au). Hiatus is not permitted, in the
sense that when the original vowels come together the appropri-
ate rule of sandhi must be applied; but secondary hiatus is per-
mitted, in that the resultant sandhi may contain two distinct
vowels. So oft vane + iva results in vana iva ‘as if in
the forest’ (by way of vanayiva, with elision of the y), and this
remains and does not further combine into *vaneva.

2 Vowel + consonant

The simplest of all possibilities. The words remain unchanged,
with one very minor exception: if the vowel is short and the
following consonant is ^ch, this ch changes to *Bfcch: so ? Rb-tfii
na cchinatti ‘he does not cut’. If the vowel is long, the change is
optional (except after the words i and *TT mi, when it is again
obligatory): si chinatti or ^HTfifeRfrT si cchinatti ‘she cuts’.

Table 2.1 Sandhi grids

Consonants ( Bracketed letters indicate the form taken by a following initial )
Permitted finals

+

a

'o

28

!

ls>

1

I

(1 Kt m> 3 Wt> 41 (3 O 3

s

g f v *s r g 'l % I

0

KO am JO t*. 4> '3 O 3
0 <v«<v«<v<v<v«

•a

«i n« wi. o ’<3 e 3

wwwmwiflwww

V

.« s

« »- jo i*. v « O <v
V<V<V<V<V<V<S<V<S

u*

8 15 1 ■? *.. 8 1 2 §

»3

*<v

H

3 Consonant + consonant

Here, the body of the consonant grid represents the form that
the last letter of the first word assumes before the following con-
sonant. In Sanskrit a word may end only in a vowel or in k, t, t,
p, h, n, m, r or h (on these last two, see below), which is why the
grid is not even more complicated than it is. In the body of the
grid a bracketed sound indicates a change in the form of the fol-
lowing initial: thus a^tat + sarfram becomes <ro»(U^tac
charlram.

4 Consonant + vowel

The possibilities of this are represented by the penultimate hor-
izontal column in the consonant grid.

5 Zero

There is one further possibility. One word instead of being fol-
lowed by another may occur at the end of a phrase or sentence,
i.e. ‘before zero’. In this position the basic form of the word re-
mains without change. To put the matter the other way round,
the form that a word assumes by itself or at the end of a sentence
has been selected as the basic form: so TUufta
ramanlyam vanam ‘the forest is pleasant’. There is, unfortu-
nately, one exception to this rule:

Sandhi of final r or h

(If the following account seems discouragingly complicated, re-
member that it is only provided as background explanation;
what is important at this stage is simply knowing how to use the
sandhi grid.) Visarga (h) is the last letter of many Sanskrit words
as they appear at the end of a sentence. It may represent one of
two original (Indo-European) sounds, s and r. Thus, from s, «W:
asvah (cf. equus) ‘horse ' ; 3TOT: asthah (cf. estis) ‘you stood’; ’ifil:
gatih (cf. basis) ‘going’. But, from original r, 3RT: mltah
(cf. mater) ‘O mother’; 5f: dv&h (cf. the English cognate) ‘door’;
catuh (cf. quattuor) ‘four’.

The sandhi of these words is complicated by two factors: first,
by whether the visarga originates from s or from r; secondly, by
the vowel that precedes the visarga. We can eliminate the first
factor and so reduce the confusion, by taking r as the basic let-
ter in the comparatively few cases where h derives from r and re-
serving h for the cases where it represents original s (so asvah,
asthah, gatih; but mStar, dvar, catur). (In practice, however, final
r may be reserved for instances of ar or Sr alone, since its sandhi

chapter 2

1

I when preceded by any other vowel is identical with the sandhi
' of final h, and therefore a distinction in these cases could be
made only after an etymological inquiry, and not always even
then.)

After vowels other than a or a, h and r have the same sandhi
(see grid). Broadly, r appears before a word beginning with a
voiced sound, s or some other unvoiced sound before a word
beginning with an unvoiced sound.

Furthermore, this is the sandhi of final r even after a and a
(matar, dvSr). But after a, final h is lost before voiced sounds,
and words ending in ah change ah to o before voiced conso-
■rf I nants. Before all vowels except short a, ah becomes a: thus 3W:
— -J + asvah + iva becomes 3RST asva iva ‘like a horse’. In com-
bination with an initial a, ah becomes o: thus 3TO: + 3lfw asvah
+ asti becomes aratf# asvosti ‘there is a horse’. In modern print-
ing this last sandhi is generally represented as 31# sfiRT asvo Ssti,
with the avagraha ( 5 ) representing the disappearance of an ini-
tial short a.

Here are some further examples of the operation of sandhi
rules:

3lPl api + awnrwftl avagacchasi = apy avagac-

chasi do you understand?

3$ nanu + : upavis&mah = : nanupavisS-

mah well, we are sitting down

3# ubhau + SIPIW : 3gacchatah = : ubhavSgac-

chatah both are coming

katham + smarati = 3# katham smarati

what, he remembers?

tat + srafir jayati = taj jayati he is winning that

dvit + hasati = dvid dhasati the enemy

laughs

31^ tan + ^ tu as tamstu them however

3T: narah + TafrfrT raksati = Ttt naro raksati the man
protects

punar + raksati = 3*^ «(c puna raksati again he
protects

gayan + aunrofit agacchati = gSyann

Sgacchati singing he comes

It will be observed in the above examples that frequently the ITT
nagirl script cannot show where the first word ends and the sec- ' J
ond begins. Spellings such as apy avagacchasi are

never found, except in one or two texts intended for beginners. In
transcription, on the other hand, the words can usually be sepa-
rated out. But they still cannot be so where two vowels coalesce
into a single vowel, and in such a case, furthermore, there may be
considerable ambiguity as to the original vowels: si, for instance,
might represent a + a, a + 3, 3 + a or 3 + 3. In the system of tran-
scription used in this book, these difficulties are overcome by the
use of the signs > and », which for convenience may be thought of
as marks of elision. The former stands in the place of an original
short vowel and the latter of an original long vowel. They always I

stand in place of the first of the two original vowels, except that > '

is used like the avagraha in the n3garl script after e and o and also
after 3. A circumflex over the sandhi vowel indicates that it is not
the same as the original second vowel (see Table i.z).

Table 2.2

a 3

i

t

and vowel
u fl

C

ai

o

au

>3 >3

> c

> c

» 6

> 0

> ai

> ai

> au

> au

3 > » 3

» e

» 6

»&

» ai

» ai

» au

» au

> i

»i

» i

» u

>n

» u

»a

Instead of a circumflex, a macron is used over e and o to dis-
tinguish instances where the second original vowel was long. So
7 na + jpsfir icchati = fe &fo n> ecchati ‘he does not want’, but
^ na + Iksate = n> Sksate ‘he does not see’.

Note that > always represents a and » 3 except in the union of
two like simple vowels (namely, the last being

very rare).

In the early lessons, where Sanskrit is given both in nigarl
and in transliteration, the sandhis of the n3gari text are usually
resolved completely in the transliterated version. When this is
done, the transliteration is put within brackets to show that it is
an analysis and not an equivalent: e.g. tat na icchati for

tan n> ecchati ‘he doesn’t want that’. No account is taken, how-
ever of a mere change of final m to anusvikra.

chapter 2

chapter 2

32

Notes on certain words

i ^ ca. This is the Sanskrit for ‘and’. It is the same word as Latin
-que and Greek te, and like them it is enclitic , i.e. cannot stand
as the first word in its sentence or clause. In fact, it always fol-
lows the word it connects: instead of ‘eggs and bacon’ one says
‘eggs bacon ca\

yitafir trafit ? socati madyati ca he grieves and rejoices

When it connects a whole phrase it may (unlike -que) be placed at
the very end of the phrase rather than after the first word:

xpt tjygfir W jlvati putram pasyati ca

alternatively:

'JWlGl ^ tjytjfir jfvati putram ca pasyati he is living and
sees (his) son

When a whole series of items is listed ca, like ‘and’, may be used
with the final item alone (‘eggs, bacon, sausage tomato ca’). On
the other hand, ca may be attached to the first item as well as to
the subsequent item or items (‘eggs ca bacon ca’). This is like the
English ‘both . . . and’, but the usage is commoner in Vedic than
in Classical Sanskrit.

2 iva. This enclitic word introduces comparisons. When
used with a verb it may be translated literally as ‘as it were’,
and expresses the notion of ‘to seem’:

«Rfif vadati he is speaking

<R<0d (vadati iva) [he is speaking as it were:] he seems to
be speaking

3 fip^ldm, and interrogative sentences. Used as a pronoun,
kim means ‘what?’:

kim vadati? what is he saying?

It may also mean ‘why?’:

vitafa kim socasi? why do you grieve?

Finally, both kim and 3Tfh api may be used at the beginning of a
sentence to mark a question expecting a yes or no answer (note
that, used in this sense, the word api is not enclitic):

fik 1dm tatra gacchati? is he going there? (or why

is he going there?)

api jayati? is he winning?

Of the two particles api is the stronger and usually marks a def-
inite request for information. As in English, questions may also
lack any interrogative particle, context or tone of voice
(k&ku) indicating that the sentence is not a plain statement. ,

4 # id. Originally this word meant ‘thus’. But in Classical
Sanskrit it is almost wholly confined to the special function of
marking off a preceding word or phrase (or even paragraph) as
being a quotation of some sort. It is the Sanskrit equivalent of
inverted commas:

3(P1CB|J| ?fil agacchSunah idvadand ‘we are coming’,

they say

There is no system of indirect speech in Sanskrit, and so the above
might equally well be translated: ‘they say that they are coming’.

The phrase isolated by id need by no means consist of words
actually spoken; it frequently expresses an attitude of mind,
the grounds upon which something is done, and so in the
right context may represent ‘because’, ‘in order that’, etc.
Most frequently this ‘id clause’ stands at the beginning of its
sentence:

<J44<H<DRI RitdPd punar vadati id d$(hand they stop to hear
him speak further— lit. ‘he is speaking again’, so thinking
they halt

The uses of id are discussed at greater length in Chapter 14 .

33

Vocabulary
Verbs of class I

ava + gam avagacchati) understand

a + gam (SIPRSfir agacchad) come
a + nl (aHHdfif &nayad) bring
gam (TOrfir gacchad) go
3 gai (»IWR| gSyati) sing
Rff ji jayad) win, conquer
^ 1 ^ jlv jlvad) live, be alive
W djs pasyati ) 1 see, look (at)

31 id (TOfil nayad) lead, take (with one)

bhram (V*rff bhramad) wander be confused

' This form is suppletive, i.e. originally taken from another root, in the same
way that in English ‘went’ is suppletive of the verb ‘go*.

chapter 2

chapter 2

35 vad vadati) say, speak

vas (39fir vasati) live (i.e. dwell)
sue (viNfa socati) grieve
TOT stha (Rudid tisthad) stand, halt
"UJ smr (OTtfa smarati) remember

Verbs of class IV

3^ nrt (fSlfir nrtyati) dance
mad (flUlRl madyati) rejoice

Verbs of class VI

3^_ is (jwfa icchad) want, wish

upa + vis (3Vlil¥lRl upavisati) sit down
119 prach (4***ld prcchati) ask

pra + vis (Tlrejlfir pravisad) enter; go in(to), come in(to)
fvTOT likh (#pgfir likhati) write

Adverbs and particles

319 atra here; to here
3HT adya today
3T*pT adhuna now

3lfiT api also, too, even ( placed after word qualified)

39: itah from here; in this direction, this way

evam thus, so

katham how?; (also, introducing an exclamatory
sentence) ‘what . . . ?’

3R leva where?

39 tatra there; to there
9 na not

■ 59 ^ punar again; (as an enclitic) however; but
JRp( punar api yet again, again, once more

(For 9 ca, ftn^ldm, 39 iva, 3fir id, see chapter text.)

Exercise 2a With the help of the sandhi grid, arrange the fol-
lowing sequences of separate words into continuous utterances.

Two keys are provided: one in transliteration with punctuation
of vowel sandhi, the other as the sentences would appear in a
normal nagari text.

For those who like to know what they are writing, the words
mean, in the order of sentence i, ‘stealthily; in the darkness; the
master’s; two horses; the villains; with knives; at last; release;
from the reins; in fact’.

35

i svairam; tamasi; isvarasya; asvau; durjanah; sastraih; cirat;
muncanti; rasmibhyah; eva. 2 asvau; Isvarasya; eva; svairam;
sastraih; rasmibhyah; muncanti; cirat; durjanah; tamasi.

3 svairam; eva; isvarasya; muncanti; asvau; sastraih; durjanah; O
cirat; tamasi; rasmibhyah. 4 muncanti; eva; tamasi; asvau; FN 3
sastraih; isvarasya; cirat; rasmibhyah; durjanah; svairam.

5 rasmibhyah; tamasi; sastraih; muncanti; cirat; eva; svairam;
isvarasya; asvau; durjanah. 6 sastraih; tamasi; rasmibhyah;
svairam; durjanah; isvarasya; drat; asvau; muncanti; eva.

7 tamasi; durjanah; rasmibhyah; chat; isvarasya; asvau; svairam;
muncanti; sastraih; eva. 8 muncanti; durjanah; eva; rasmib-
hyah; asvau; isvarasya; cirat; svairam; sastraih; tamasi.

Exercise 2b Translate into English the following sentences.
Comparison with the transliterated version in the key will some-
times help to solve difficulties.

1 \ 1 aw t uRtviw : 1? 1 ffcnafffi? 1 rxi

iiqpiwfa m 1 ~sn tpfttnsfti i 4 i wmwRi ie 1 aw feurnw:
14 1 M^aiifli ftronfa v 1^ 1 1^0 1 44414! jfnw*r 1

n 3 1 aw nfcRira ffir ^T: i wrsj n*i

4i«u4)(u mm(h nt$n

Exercise 2c Translate the following sentences into Sanskrit.
Model word order on the Sanskrit-English sentences (adverbs
are normally placed before verbs).

1 You are wandering. 2 Now we understand. 3 There too she
dances. 4 The two of you live here? 5 What, are they win-
ning? 6 Let us two sit down. 7 The two of them do not say
so. 8 Are you asking yet again? 9 What shall I write here?
10 Do you not see? 1 1 You (pi.) seem to be singing. 1 2 They
come and go. 13 Now she both lives and grieves. 14 He sees

chapter 2

chapter 2

36

and seems to speak. 15 *What do you (pi) want?’ they ask.
1 6 We go because they are coming. 17 However we do not re-
joice. 18 So also do the two of us remember— What do you re-
member?— That he is not coming today.

Some nominal and pronominal paradigms

Table 3.1

■

Singular

Dual

Plural

Nom. Woe. Acc.

Nom./

VocJ

Acc.

Nom./ Acc.

Woe.

Nouns

30} horse
asva masc.

3W: 3W 303*1.

asvah asva asvam

aoft

asvau

3WT: 30n\

asv3h asv3n

tJTPT fruit
phala neuter

tieiH. tR^f ywiH.

phalam phala phalam

tR#

phale

4*eiiPi

phalani

Pronouns >
tst per.

mat/asmat

3JJP^ tntf,

aham I mam me

3v3m

99*^ amir,

vayam we asm3n us

znd per.
tvat/ yusmat

79*1. twth.

tvam you tv3m

Wl.

yuv3m

'5 on T

yflyam yusmSn

3 rd per.
tat masc.

tau

*1.
tat it

%

te

TtiPr

t3ni

1 Though some do have productive stem forms (cf. Chapter io), personal and
demonstrative pronouns are referred to in this book by means of the nominative
singular masculine: aham, tvam, sah, etc.

P) chapter 3

Stem form

Singular

Dual

Plural

Nom. Voc. Acc.

NomJ

VocJ

Acc.

NomJ Acc.
Voc.

Irtterrog.

—who?

—masc.

kah who? kam whom?

kau

w

Irim neuter

1dm

ik

ke

anft

k&ni

(Vocative forms of the pronouns do not occur.)

The nominative and accusative cases are used to express the sub-
ject and object respectively of finite verbs.

U?*lPl acdryah sisyam pasyati teacher sees pupil
3irei$ MTU Pi acdryam sisyah pasyati pupil sees teacher
There is no definite or indefinite article in Sanskrit: in one con-
text aciryah is to be translated ‘the teacher’, in another ‘a
teacher’. (Where the difference of meaning is crucial, ‘the’ is
sometim es^ represe nted by sah ‘that’: RwAfNlritram etat ‘this is a
picture’, tat etat dtram ‘this is the picture’.)

The accusative is also used to express the goal with verbs of mo-
tion: «wPi nagaram gacchati ‘he goes to the city’. Verbs such

as m ‘lead’ may ta ke tins accusative in addition to that of the di-
rect object: ^PTT nagaram tv3m nay3mi ‘I’ll take you to

the city’.

The verb vad ‘say, speak’ may optionally take an accusative of
the person addressed as well as an accusative of that which is
said.

As was seen in Chapter 2 , the finite verb forms in themselves dis-
tinguish person and number The use of the nominative of the
personal pronouns is therefore optional with finite verbs and is
normally dispensed with un less at least a slight degree of em-
phasis is caUe d for: HPwifa pravi&mi i’ll go in’ as opposed to
SHFTfa nfavilfa ah am api pravisami ‘I too will go in’.

The vocative is the case of address. It is most frequently placed
at the beginning of the sentence, and regularly precedes even
connecting particles.

9TH BRjftl bala lam vadasi what do you say, child?

vayasya, tat kim socasi? then why,
friend, do you grieve?

In a phrase such as ‘the large cat’ we often call ‘large’ an adjec-
tive and ‘cat’ a noun. More formally, both might be called
nouns: ‘large’ a noun adjective and ‘cat’ a noun substantive. To
preserve this wider sense of the word ‘noun’ in talking about
Sanskrit is not mere pedantry, for many nouns may be used both
adjectivally and substantially, and the classification of nouns by
inflexional type is independent of whether they are substantives
or adjectives. In this book the terms ‘noun’ and ‘nominal’ are to
be interpreted in their wider sense.

Adjectives ending in a inflect in the masculine like asvah, in the
neuter like phalam. An adjective accords in number gender and
case with the substantive it qualifies:

39

ramanlySni vanani sobhanam jalam ca pasy&mi I see pleas-
ant forests and shining water

Pronouns no less than nouns may be used both adjectivally and
substantially. Thus the pronoun sah means both ‘that’ and
‘he/it’ (i.e. ‘that one’). Similarly, the interrogative pronoun may
be used alone or qualifying a substantive:

ftraftneftr tarn sisyam icchanti they want that pupil

T ?1 HVmiIm na tarn pasyimi I don’t see him

fa tat icchasi? do you want it/that?

^Plt kah nagaram gacchati? who is going to the

city?

^ kah sisyah evam vadati? which pupil says
so?

Irregularities of external sandhi

The vowels I, fl and e when at the end of a dual inflexion
(whether nominal, pronominal or verbal) are not subject to the
operation of sandhi but remain unchanged before vowels:

% : te phale icchSmah we want those two fruits

The nominative singular masculine of the pronoun tat has
really two forms, sa and sah (cf. Greek ho with the hos in

chapter 3

§ chapter 3

(e d’hos). sa is used before all consonants, sah is used in all other
circumstances, namely at the end of a sentence and before vow-
els, but by the normal operation of sandhi it thereby becomes sa
before all vowels except short a:

H TO: I IT f?TO: I H 3nrf: I SV: 1 3TO: TT: I sa gajah / sa

sisyah / sa acaryah / so >svah / asvah sah
• • • • • •

Nominal sentences

There is an important type of sentence in Sanskrit which con-
tains no verb. Such sentences, consisting of a juxtaposition of
subject and non-verbal predicate, are a feature of many Indo-
European languages. In English the type is almost lost, and when
used it has a literary flavour as in ‘happy the man who...’. In
Greek there are sentences like sophos ho phildsophos ‘the
philosopher is wise’; in a song of Edith Piaf occurs ‘ balayees les
amours' ‘loves are swept away’. Regularly in such an English
sentence the subject is not placed first. A twentieth-century poet,
T. S. Eliot, can write ‘dark the Sun and Moon, and the
Almanach de Gotha’, but ‘the Sun and Moon dark’ would
hardly have been possible. This fact distinguishes such a sen-
tence from one simply involving an ellipse of the verb ‘to be’: we
may say ‘John is intelligent, Peter stupid’.

In Sanskrit adjectives used predicatively agree in number
gender and case with their substantive, just as when used at-
tributively. As a phrase, sfghrau asvau means ‘the two

swift horses’; as a complete statement, it means ‘the two horses
are swift’.

ramanlyah balah the child is pleasant

The predicate may, however be another substantive, and then
agreement of number or gender is not necessary:

T$3 tRta: svalpam sulcham krodhah anger is a small

pleasure

If the subject is a pronoun and the predicate a substantive, the
pronoun usually reflects the number and gender of the predicate:

IT: stiryah sah that is the sun

The predicate may also be adverbial. Thus it may consist of
an adverb, or of a substantive in some other case such as the
locative.

^ evam sarvada sukh&ni joys are ever thus

kva Devadattah? where is Devadatta?

udytoe Devadattah Devadatta is in the garden

Word order

Many of the relationships that English normally expresses by
means of word order (subject-verb, verb-object, etc.) are ex-
pressed in Sanskrit by means of inflexions— e.g.

durlabham (object) abhilasati (verb) manorathah O
(subject) ‘desire hankers-after the inaccessible’; to put these |OJ
three words in some other order would make no difference to
what is hankering after what. As a result, word order plays a
less crucial role in Sanskrit than in English grammar, and more
frequently than in English two or more different arrangements
of the same words are possible without any strongly felt differ-
ence of effect. But this is not to say that if one were to shake up
a sentence of even the most unpretentious Sanskrit prose and
spill out the words in some random new order, that order
would always have been equally acceptable to the writer. Word
order is important to the rhythm and emphasis of a Sanskrit
sentence. One might suggest that its role is sometimes analo-
gous to that of stress and intonation in spoken English, but a
detailed investigation of this would depend upon more ade-
quate accounts both of Sanskrit word order and of the role of
stress/intonation patterns in English than at present exist. The
following generalisations (which anticipate some grammatical
forms to be explained in later chapters) should be measured
against sentences actually encountered, and particularly against
the original sentences occurring in Chapter 6 onwards. Further
remarks will be made later, for example in connection with im-
peratives and relative clauses.

Words that form a natural group are normally placed together.

In particular, adjectives and dependent genitives are placed with
(most often before) their substantives.

Small unemphatic words should not be placed last (unless they
are actual enclitics forming one unit with what immediately pre-
cedes). Sentences usually end with a verb or a substantive.

The initial position is the position of greatest emphasis:

pasyati tv&m ScSryah ‘the teacher sees (/can see) you’;

chapter 3

jTOMcto pralapad esa(h) vaidheyah ‘this fool is (just) bab-
bling’. In lively discourse, and especially in nominal sentences or
those whose predicate is an intransitive verb, the subject unless
emphasised is enclitic; it does not occupy the initial position. It
need not actually stand last. Especially if it is a pronoun, it may
be inserted into the middle of a predicate of two or more words:

citram etat this is a picture
tat etat citram this is the picture

fora ^TS’prra vinayah esa(h) Candraguptasya this is
Candragupta’s good breeding

dvitfyam idam asvfbajananam this is a
further ground-for-optimism

nforrar balavat atrabhavati paritrasta the lady
is extremely brightened

Examples of emphatic subjects coming first are:

dvayam api priyam nah both things alike are
welcome to us

sauhardam evam pasyati (it is) friendship
(which) sees (things) so

There is another rhythm, found more particularly in longer sen-
tences, which is more like the prevailing rhythm of English sen-
tences, where a subject is first announced and then talked about.
Where this happens, the subject is frequently marked either by
the ‘anaphoric’ pronoun sah or by the addition of some particle:
TPFRTra^ Riimah tavat ‘as for Rama, he. . .’, TPlt sfa R2mah api
‘and Rama for his part’.

hra

The enclitic particle of comparison iva is employed much more
commonly with nouns than (as in the previous chapter) with verbs.
Where two substantives are compared, they will be in the same
case. The word may be translated by English ‘like’, ‘as if’, etc.:

aclryah iva sisyah mam prcchati
the pupil is questioning me like a teacher

3Jrai#ra ttf f?M: acaryam iva mSm sisyah prcchati

the pupil is questioning me as if I were a teacher

When an adjective appears as the standard of comparison, the
word ‘as’ may appear twice in English:

atg&re ah am iva sflnyam aranyam the forest is

(as) desolate as I

An adjective may also be introduced with iva attached to it:

far vismitah iva pasyati he gazes as if astonished

Where iva is used with the predicate of a nominal sentence,
either ‘is like’ or ‘seems’ may be appropriate:

fafanr vismitah iva panditah the scholar seems

astonished I O

jalam iva sukham happiness is like water

^ f?M : panditah iva sa sisyah that pupil seems a

scholar (/is like a scholar)

Co-ordinative compounds ( dvandva )

Sanskrit inherited from Indo-European a considerable facility in
the formation of compound nouns, and subsequently extended
the facility even further. English also forms compounds of two
members fairly freely, but principally of the determinative type,
particularly the dependent determinative (‘hand-made’, ‘wife-
beater’, etc). In this chapter attention is confined to one class of
compounds, co-ordinatives, which from the point of view of
English are the most peculiar (we may find a faint echo of them
in a word such as ‘bitter-sweet’ or the compound numerals such
as ‘sixty-seven’).

In English we may wonder whether a phrase such as ‘magazine
stand’ should be classified as a compound at all. In Sanskrit
there is a simple criterion which is almost universally valid. All
members of a compound except the last appear in their stem
form. The stem form of a noun is the form lacking any case ter-
mination. asva, phala and ramanlya are stem forms. Nouns are
usually quoted in their stem forms in dictionaries: when quoted
in this book, however substantives in a usually have visarga or
anusv§ra added to them as an aid to remembering whether they
are masculine or neuter.

To form a co-ordinative compound (called in Sanskrit ^ dvandva
‘couple’) two or more stems are put together with a relationship
between them such as would be expressed by the English word
‘and’: iciryasisya ‘teacher and pupil’. The gender of

5 chapter 3

5 chapter 3

the compound is that of its final member, and die number is that
of the sum of die elements; 1 an appropriate inflexion is added:

4lUl4f¥luii<JHi%Ufl : acHryasisyau Sgacchatah teacher and
pupil are coming

The same notion may, of course, be expressed without the use
of a compound, by means of the particle ca:

3TOr4» tylRWHITOI : Scary ah ca sisyah ca Sgacchatah

Stem forms are ambiguous as between singular dual and plural.
ScSryasisya may therefore also mean ‘teachers and pupils’,
q ‘teacher and pupils’ or ‘teachers and pupil’. In all these instances
r .s the inflexions are inevitably plural (signifying three or more).

Any number of stems may be put together in a dvandva. Again,
if more than two stems are involved, the final inflexion must
necessarily be plural:

3ITOTOITOTT asva ; gaja ; bala ; narah nrtyanti horses,

elephants, children and men are dancing

Because of the importance of correct analysis of compounds for
the understanding of Sanskrit, a system of punctuating translit-
erated Sanskrit so as to make plain their grammatical structure
is used throughout this book. In this system of punctuation,
semicolons (as in the above example) indicate dvandva relation-
ship between members.

Vocabulary

Substantives— masculine

3W: asvah horse

<HWf4 : 3c3ryah teacher

krodhah anger
TO: gajah elephant

TOf: candrah moon

TO: janah person,

people

^T: narah man

trf<TO: panditah scholar,

par)4it

TOff: parvatah mountain

TOT: b&lah child, boy

brikhmanah
brahmin

sisyah pupil
sflryah sun

1 A different type of dvandva (of restricted application) in which the termina-
tion is neuter singular has deliberately not been introduced here.

Substantives— neuter 1

$9 ksetram field
5 IH jalam water
tRH phalam fruit,
reward, advantage
*fal* bhojanam food
*** vacanam word, speech

duhkham pain,
unhappiness, sorrow
** vanam forest
"tp* sukham pleasure,
happiness

45

Adjectives

W#* ramanlya pleasant yft* sighra swift, fast
vismita astonished #** sobhana shining,

bright, beautiful
■’raw svalpa small, scant

(Note: 31 * atra, as well as meaning ‘here’, may be translated by
‘in this (matter), on this (point)’.)

Exercise 3a Translate into English:

3IMl4 ftiuil 31H3pfl H 1 3|UM!lft«t»r« I? I 31? »3 IIP*

rx i m i yswawi) **fir 1^1 *w=i(*if«i <jw<i:

H9 I at *3* l|fu4ti) «n»(a I C I 31* * *<l4)ftl ** ufeivitl : 1^ I

*** *I*TOFI* : l^o | 3*ranJ*^* ?*■***: 1^ $ 1 *T3*: 1^? I

IS* I t»iuft ** fl l ffitSolftfo

f*R>l*r**fi* I'm *5***lft *MT: 5:*yMlfil MwWM<lPd I ^ I

*rar 3i*f*> ip* ^mHraraf n

Exercise 3b Translate into Sanskrit (using dvandva com-
pounds where possible):

i We want water and food. 2 The two of them see a swift
horse. 3 Scholars, what do you want ? 4 Anger conquers you
as if (you were) a child. 5 Which two teachers do you see? 6
The moon is as bright as the sun today. 7 Is he pleasant?
8 Teacher^ what brahmin is coming this way? 9 What is the

1 Note: The anusv5ra added to neuter a stems simply indicates gender: the basic
form of the nominative/accusative singular ending should be thought of as m,
which remains before vowels or zero and converts to anusvSra only before con-
sonants.

chapter 3

chapter 3

advantage in this? ro Children, where is that teacher? 1 1 Do
you (pi.) not remember even pleasant words? 12 We see scant
advantage. 13 Are the teachers astonished? 14 The two boys
see fields, mountains and forests. 1 5 Why do you (pi) say that
he does not want happiness? 16 They are taking die elephant
to the field. 17 But where the food (is), you do not tell me.
[ Use id.] 18 That man is speaking to the astonished people like
a brahmin.

The past participle

The past participle is the most important of the nominal for-
mations from the verbal root (nominal forms of the verb being
those which function not as finite verbs but as substantives or
adjectives). Its sense corresponds to that of the English past
participle in the latter’s more adjectival use; it thus in general
signifies completed action and, exce pt in th e case of necessarily
intransitive verbs, passive voice. So MftTO likhita ‘written’,
smrta ‘remembered’, TO gata ‘gone’, TO magna ‘sunk’, ‘sunken’.

The past participle is formed by adding to the root one of three
suffixes: (a) -ta, (b) -ita, (c) -na. Very few roots form their past
participle in more than one of these three ways. In all cases the
root remains unstrengthened (without guna or vrddhi).

(a) -ta. Before this suffix, the root usually appears in its very
weakest form (cf. the remarks on samprasarana in Chapter z)
Thus TOT upta (from TOvap) ‘sown’ and TO hata (Ifthan) ‘killed’.
The past participle of roots ending in a or ai may end in ita or
Ita (and might therefore be mentioned under (b) below): ’flu
glta $ gai) ‘sung’ ftTO sthita (TO stha) ‘standing’ (in the sense of
‘remaining standing’). Important irregular forms are fTO hita (*H
dha) ‘put’ and TO datta (3T da) ‘given’. The operation of internal
sandhi often produces a considerable change of appearance: 3?
drsta (^ drs) ‘seen’ prsta (H^prach, with samprasarana)
‘aslced’, labdha (^H_lab6) ‘taken’, 3T3 udha (a^vah, with
samprasarana and lengthening of the resulting u) ‘carried’.

(b) -ita. Here the same suffix -ta is added to the root with inser-
tion of the connecting vowel i. The root is not strengthened, nei-
ther in general is it reduced by samprasarana or other processes;

chapter 4

48

so ?ft? patita (ifllpat) ‘fallen’. Among exceptional redu ced forms
are 3ft? udita (?^vad) ‘spoken’ and, with long I, 7$? grhta (3^
grah) ‘seized’.

(Class X verbs and other ver bs with stems ending in -aya
substitute -ita for this suffix: kathayati ‘tells’; 3»f*l3

kathita ‘told’. Otherwise -ita js substituted only for the final a
of a derivative stem: 3>?f3ft kandbyati ‘scratches’;
kandbyita ‘scratched’.)

(c) -na. This suffix is taken by many roots ending in 3/ai,
1,0, f, d and j. *dn becomes nn and *jn becomes gn. *fn gener-
ally becomes irn, but after a labial consonant Orn. a/ai becomes
sometimes 0 and sometimes f. So fast bhinna (fti? bhid) ‘split*.

tlma (V tf ) ‘crossed’, pOma (7 pf ) ‘filled’, gUtaa

glai) ‘tired* #ThIna (?T ha) ‘left’! 1

No rule can predict the form that the past participle of a par-
ticular verb will take. To ascertain it you should therefore in fu-
ture consult the list of verbs in Appendix z. But the following is
a list in order of the past participles of verbs quoted in the vo-
cabularies of Chapters z and 4: 3R3?avagata, 3TPRT igata, 3?fl3
Inlta, ??, gata, 4ft gita, ftl? jita, 4)ft? jlvita, 7? drst a, 4ft nlta,
WRf bhrSknta, 3ft? udita, 3ft? usita, (past participle of sue not
found) ft?? sthita, H|? sm rta, n rtta, 33 matta, W ista, 3?ftg
upavista, IB prsta, nftg pravista, fcifara likhita, 7»? lerta, ???>
tyakta, vismrta.

The verb kr ‘do’ forms a present stem of class VIII,
which inflects quite differently from the stems so far learnt
(thus karoti ‘he does’, gxJPu kurvanti ‘they do’). Do not
feel free therefore to use the present stem of any verb unless it is
stated to belong to class I, IV, VI or X (the ‘thematic’ classes).

Use of the past participle

Past participles may be used in all the ways in which other ad-
jectives are used (in fact, in the previous exercise vismita
‘astonished’, like its English counterpart, is actually a participle).

istam phalam na pasyami I do not see the

desired reward

ftfttTRfT?: I jito Raksasah Raksasa is beaten

ftlRTJtlftg: 755ft l sisyin upavistah prcchati seated, he
questions the pupils

In particular the use of the enclitic particle api ‘even’ with
participles is noteworthy. It has a concessive force and may be
translated by ‘though’ (with or without a finite verb):

|ST anfit qfoiTflT •IHI'wiPd I istSh api panditah na Sgacchanti
[even desired:] though wanted, the pandits do not come:
though we want the pandits, they do not come

¥BHlU mRMMU) qjtJPT: I istin api panditan na pasy3mah the
pandits, though wanted, we do not see: though we want
the pandits, we do not see them

49

Instrumental case

In addition to nominative, vocative and accusative, Sanskrit
nouns distinguish instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and
locative cases. From now on, the paradigms in the grammatical
section of the book should be consulted. However the following
are the instrumental forms of the words quoted in Chapter 3 :

3T4H asvena, 3Wm*n^asvabhyam, 3 t 4: asvaih; phalena,
phalabhyam, phalaih; W maya, anrarwn*^
ilvab hyam, 3TWfV: asmabhih; tvaiya ^apwrp^yuvabhyam,
yusmabhih; tena, wwm^tabhyam, ft: taih (m. and
«.); ftrr kena, ^ivai^kabhyam, ft»: kaih (m. and «.).

The instrumental case has both an instrumental and a comitative
sense: it expresses both main senses of the English *with\ It also
denotes the agent in a passive construction. Among possible
translations of its significance are therefore ‘with’, ‘by means of’,
‘because of’, ‘through’, ‘together with’, ‘by’.

I jalena asvdn sincati he sprinkles the horses

with water

TOfir I sukham yogena gacchati he [goes to:]
attains happiness by means of yoga

WWTPnsBfil I balaih agacchati he is coming with the
children

faftt I jito Raksasah Canakyena Raksasa is

beaten by Oinakya

saha

The comitative sense of the instrumental is, however usually re-
inforced by the addition of the preposition saha ‘together

chapter 4

chapter 4

__ I with’, which like most Sanskrit prepositions usually follows the
I substantive it governs:

3T& I b&laih saha Sgacchati he is coming with

the children

Past passive sentences

The example given earlier, jito Raksasas Canakyena ‘Raksasa is
beaten by Canakya’, might with very little alteration of sense
also be translated as ‘Canakya has beaten Raksasa’. But further-
more, since Sanskrit does not normally distinguish perfect from
O preterite, it might be translated as ‘Canakya beat Raksasa’. We
^^1 thus have in Sanskrit a way of expressing past active statements
in which the subject is represented by the instrumental case, the
object by the nominative case and the verb by a past participle
agreeing with the latter, 1

In Sanskrit this is one among several ways of expressing past
statements. Other possibilities include the use of a finite past tense
(imperfect, aorist or perfect— often, in the later language, with-
out distinction of meaning) and the use of past active participle
(see Chapter 9). In this and the immediately following exercises
it is the past participle construction that is to be practised. In
translating into Sanskrit you will find it convenient to recast the
sentence mentally in English first:

though tired, the friends seized the very first opportunity

by the friends, though tired, the very first opportunity (was)
seized

JWW: TIWT I parisr&ntaih api

vayasyaih prathamah eva avasarah grhltah

When a verb is intransitive, an impersonal passive constructtion
might theoretically be used: fa tena gatam ‘by him
(it was) gone’; ‘he went’. But this is far less common than the use

1 This type of construction was so well favoured that it became the regular way
of expressing such statements in some of the languages descended from
Sanskrit. Thus the Hindi sentence ana ftsar Rjmrte kim kiyi ‘Ram did the

work’ represents the Sanskrit tlftm ^HR&mena karma krtam. From this re-

sults the apparently curious phenomenon in Hindi that in the past tense the sub-
ject of a transitive verb takes a special suffix, and the verb agrees in number and
gender with the object.

of such a participle in an intransitive sense, with the subject in
the nominative case:

% g ^ W: I te ca vayasyaih saha nagaram gatah
and they are gone/have gone/went with their friends to the
city

There are, however a number of past participles that may
have both an active and a passive sense. Thus pita, like
‘drunk’ in English, can be applied both to the drink and to the
drinker (though in Sanskrit there is no necessary implication
of intoxication). Similarly, Iffeg pravista ‘entered’ or ‘having en-
tered’, Rnqw vismrta ‘forgotten’ or ‘having forgotten’. Thus with
an active construction:

TPftsfrTOtnftg: RSmo api nagaram pravistah and with a
passive construction:

■llAuufU m(4SH. R2mena api nagaram pravistam

the meaning of both versions being ‘and Rama entered the city’.

Omission of pronouns

It is not uncommon to find in Sanskrit sentences such as IF! T
TOT: hanta, na gatah ‘oh, he hasn’t gone!’. Here, the pronominal
subject ‘he’ is completely omitted and can only be inferred from
the masculine singular form of the predicate gatah. This is par-
allel to the already mentioned omission of the personal pro-
nouns with finite verbs na gacchad ‘he is not going’ etc.)

but is of more limited scope. First and second person subjects
cannot normally be omitted (unless replaced by the appropriate
form of the verb as ‘be’— see Chapter 5), since they are not dis-
tinguished by any special form of the past participle.

The ‘logical subject’ of past passive sentences, in other words the
agent expressed by the instrumental case, is also often omitted.
But this omission is of a different order, since the Sanskrit sen-
tence is grammatically complete without any expressed agent.
While jito R&ksasas C&nakyena means ‘Canakya beat
Raksasa’, there is nothing lacking in the simple jito Rlksasah
‘Ralcsasa got beaten’. Hence Sanskrit may not bother to express
an agent whose presence is grammatically necessary in English:
one person may ask 3$ flsaH^kim drstam tat udy&nam?,
meaning ‘have (you) seen that garden?’, and another may reply
fgt^drstam, meaning ‘(I) have seen it’. In the following exercises

chapter 4

52

English pronouns are bracketed where they are not expressed or
directly implied in the Sanskrit version.

(The term ‘logical subject’ points to the parallel between the nom-
inative subject of present active sentences and the instrumental
agent of past passive sentences. It is a blanket term useful in dis-
cussing sentences that attribute past or present behaviour to ani-
mate beings. But it cannot be pressed too far, for the term ‘subject*
is also used to cover the nominative subject of intransitive presents
and nominal sentences, and the nominative of past passive sen-
tences is itself often comparable to this latter type of ‘subject’.)

eva

^ eva is an enclitic particle which serves to emphasise the im-
mediately preceding word. It may thus correspond to the em-
phatic inflection of the voice which we represent in print, if at
all, by the use of italics:

I svalpdni eva icch&nah we want the small

ones

(The degree of emphasis would often be better represented by
the use of a stress mark such as ' (‘we want the small ones’), and
such a mark is occasionally used in this book where the use of
italics would be particularly distorting to the sense.)

This type of emphasis may also be represented in English by a
relative clause construction (as regularly in French— Vest
moi qui fai fait ’, ‘J did it’).

: I etin eva gunSn icch&mah these are the
qualities we want or it is these qualities we want

I devena eva etat istam it was His Majesty who
wanted this

eva may also be translated by a specific word such as ‘really*, ‘ac-
tually’, ‘in fact’, ‘quite’, ‘very*, ‘just’, ‘only’. adbhutaheva

‘really extraordinary’; balah eva esah ‘he is just a child’;

IT sah eva janah ‘that very person’. The use with the

demonstrative sah, as in the last example, is particularly note-
worthy and may be represented in English by the word ‘same’:
Sfa^tat eva ksetram ‘that very field’: ‘the same field*.

eva is particularly used to mark the predicate of a nominal sen-
tence:

^ ^ IBW: l esah eva sah brahntanah [that brahmin is

this one] here is the brahmin

esah

esah ‘this’ is a compounded form of the demonstrative pro-
noun sah ‘that’. Its inflexion follows that of sah precisely, except
that by internal sandhi the nominative singular masculine sah/sa
and nominative singular feminine s& become ^ :/^ esah/esa and
es5 respectively. The distribution of the forms esah/esa is the
same as that of sah/sa.

Whereas sah is an unemphatic pronoun used to qualify what is
not immediately present to the speaker esah is a deictic pronoun
normally referring to what is close at hand. When it qualifies an
already defined substantive, it may be represented in English by
‘here’, ‘here is/are’, ‘see’, etc.

HJ'SWpir: I esah sah br&hmanah here is the brahmin

Tuit a)MMM4iPl l esah RSmah balSn inayati see, Rama is
bringing the children or here is Rlma, bringing the children

The most striking example of this usage is in conjunction with a
first or second person verb:

3irnr nfttynft I esah udyanam pravisSmi see, I am going
into the garden

vS

W va is yet another enclitic particle. It has the meaning ‘or’ and
follows what it ‘disjoins’ as ca follows what it joins. ‘Either . . .
or . . .’ is represented by . . . v9 . . . vS.

<hi«ii4*ii arr TO qjr : | adryena vS sisyaih va gajah
esah anltah either the teacher or the pupils brought this
elephant here

krtam, alam and kim

m w

3RIR. krtam ‘done (with)’ and 3TH^alam ‘enough (of)’ are used
with a substantive in the instrumental to express a negative ex-
hortation, ‘cease from’ (the exhortation occasionally being ad-
dressed to oneself):

I alam sokena enough of sadness: do not be sad

gqpvi'i I krtam kutQhalena have done with curiosity:
I/you must not be curious

fc^kim? ‘what (with)?’ is used in a similar fashion:

| kim udySnena ramanlyena? -what is the
point of an attractive garden?

g chapter 4

3 chapter 4

Adverbs of manner

Sanskrit adjectives do not have a termination exclusively re-
served for adverbial usage. Instead, the accusative singular
neuter (acting as an ‘internal accusative’) may do duty.

I slghram calati [he moves a swift (moving):]
he moves swiftly

Adverbs of manner are also frequently represented by substan-
tives in the instrumental case. visadena ‘with dejection’:
‘dejectedly’, twA: vacanaih ‘by words’: ‘verbally’.

Internal sandhi

The rules of external sandhi, as covered by the sandhi grids, de-
scribe juncture phenomena between complete words within a
sentence. Internal sandhi concerns the juncture of morphemes
within a single word. External sandhi is the more regular and in-
variable because it is comparatively ad hoc : in principle, any
Sanskrit word may find itself next to any other Sanskrit word.
The rules of internal sandhi are both less invariable and, from the
learner’s point of view, less overwhelmingly important, because
they describe a previously established, set of forms, the forms
which inflected words do in fact have, and which are due to other
factors as well as to the operation of internal sandhi. (Similarly
in English, while we may by rules of internal sandhi predict both
‘cats’ and ‘dogz’, that ‘children’ is the plural of ‘child’ is merely
an historically determined fact about the language.)

The principles of internal sandhi are therefore best absorbed by
observation of actual nominal and verbal formations. There are
many features in common with external sandhi, but broadly
speaking, instead of assimilation of the first sound to the second,
the assimilation is two-way and a greater variety of combination is
permitted. Instead of reducing to k/t/t/p, stops preserve both as-
piration and voicing, and the palatal series is also retained. Before
vowels, semivowels and nasals, all these stops remain unchanged.
The t of the past participle may assimilate the voicing and aspira-
tion of a root final sound: so f^budh ‘awake’, buddha (for
*budh-ta ) ‘awakened’. Before vowels and y, the diphthongs revert
to ay/ay/av/5v: so ne + ati = nayati (cf. Chapter z).

Retroflexion of s and n

Included within the scope of internal sandhi are two important j
rules which are really about possible sequences of sound within \

a Sanskrit word. (Minor exceptions to both rules occur, but
these are not important for the beginner,) The first rule is that s
is found instead of s immediately after k, r or any vowel except
a or a, provided that it is neither final nor followed by r. This
happens even if there is an anusvara or visarga between the pre-
ceding vowel and the s. The rule will appear plainer in tabular
form (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1

k,r.

in spite of an

changes $ to s

unless final or

i, 1 , u, ft,

intervening

followed by r

bl

e, ai, 0 or au

m or h

Thus esa/esahin comparison with sa/sah. If the following sound is,
in fact, t, tfi or n, this also becomes retroflex. Thus, in comparison
with the root sthS ‘stand’, tisthati (for *tisthati) ‘he stands’.

The second rule is at once more important and more difficult to
apply, for the reason that it is capable of operating over a much
longer phonetic sequence (though only within a single word).
See first the rule in tabular form (Table 4.Z).

Table 4.2

r

in spite of any combination of velars

changes n

if followed by

j

(k, kh, g, gh, n), labials (p, ph, b, bh, m

to Q

vowels, m, y, v.

r

and v) or y, h, m (h cannot occur)

or n (which also

or 5

or vowels

becomes n)

The point is this. The pronunciation of the retroflex sounds
r, f, r, s (but not of t, th, d, dh or n ) is such that the tongue does
not release the retroflex position even after the sound has been
made. This retroflex position continues (within a single word)
until there occurs either a retroflex sound of the releasing type
(t, th, d, dh, n) or a sound that requires the use of the tongue in
another position (c, ch, j, jh, n, s, t, th, d, dh, 1 , s). But if n, an
easily assimilable sound, occurs while the tongue is in the
retroflex position, it is realised as a retroflex n (thus causing re-
lease of the retroflex position)— unless, indeed, it is the last
sound in the word or is followed by some less easily assimilable
sound such as t, which guards the dental quality of both. Under
the same circumstances nn becomes nn.

An illustration of both the above rules occurs in the past par-
ticiple of sad ‘sit’ when combined with the prefix r ni
‘down’. The past participle of sad is TOT sanna. *nisanna
becomes by the first rule *nisanna , which in turn becomes by the
second rule Pmi)QI nisanna ‘seated’.

The rules do not apply between separate words or (with rare and
unimportant exceptions^ between the elements of a nominal
compound: thus nara;nagar3ni, not *nara;nagar&nu

After a verbal prefix the rules do operate, but with many excep-
tions. Generally speaking, n and s are retroflected only if they
are the first sound in the following stem (a restriction already
naturally applicable to s), and not always even then. Thus, as
quoted above, nisanna, but as an exception

visarpati (from vi + srp) ‘glides’. From ^ nam L
pranamati ‘salutes’. _ But from nind, either
parinindati or MflPwRl parinindati ‘censures’. The vocabularies
will show whether or not retroflexion occurs after a prefix. As
they will also show, particular lexical items do not always ex-
hibit the expected retroflexion of s: e.g. kusumam‘flower’,
not *kusumam. The most important sphere of application of
both rules is in the addition of suffixes: e.g. guru + su *
gurusu, locative plural of guru ‘heavy’. The terminations so far
encountered containing an n liable to retroflexion are the neuter
plural -&ni and the instrumental singular -ena.

It is not easy at first always to remember to make n retroflex. If
after several exercises you find this is still causing trouble, you
should make a special check of each exercise to determine
whether the rule has been fully applied.

Absence of external sandhi

When some pause of sense occurs within a sentence, the rules of
sandhi are not necessarily observed (in prose). Thus, in particu-
lar sandhi does not occur after interjections and is optional after
initial vocatives. If you abstain from making sandhi in the latter
circumstances, it is wiser to show that this is deliberate bv in-
serting a dash or a comma.

Vocabulary

ara^IT: avasarah opportunity,
occasion

3VR udySnam garden,
park

devah god; His
Majesty; Your Majesty
q*Tf nagaram city, town
3?: putrah son

§*^PT kutflhalam curiosity, JPJST: prayatnah effort.

interest

grham house
(m. in pi.)

jfvtam 1 life
darsanam sight,
spectacle

attempt

<S 4 W: vayasyah friend

(lit. of same age)
fasts: visSdah despair,

dejection

samdehah doubt
• •

57

adbhuta

extraordinary, marvellous
JUrin jlvita 1 alive
dtira far off; adv.
(dOram) a long way
trfwtRT parisranta 1
exhausted, tired

HOT prathama first,
previous; adv. (prathamam)
already

ftRT priya dear,

^be loved

madlya my
(possessive adj.)

kr (VIII karoti)
do, make

tyaj (I tyajati)

abandon, leave, give up

3151^ alam enough;

+ instr. enough of, do not,
etc.

eva in fact, actually,
quite, only, (the) very

vi + smr (I
vismarati) forget

esah pron. this
I vi or

W saha + instr. (together)
with

^ he (before vocatives) o

Exercise 4a Translate into English:

3!: I* I ufavim: R I

B 4 oT: R I fiNt ffif I* I

fefircgRftfa nfeyift 14 1 nft*rciT

r 1 ro 1 s^tr ?j?r fgvi^n ^T: Rsrs 9 ^:

fW: r*i t sffirgtRgggft Rmftr

m uygftr $g ; ir$ii

1 In origin a past participle.

chapter 4

chapter 4

58

Exercise 4b Translate into Sanskrit:
i Your Majesty is tired: let us sit down here, z The people did
not forget these words. 3 This is quite beautiful. 4 He re-
members (his) son although he has gone to the forest. [Translate
for both meanings of the second ‘he’.] 5 We came only today.
6 Your Majesty, these two children have even now not left the
garden. 7 Here he stands with (his) friends. 8 What is ex-
traordinary in this? I have already seen this man. 9 See, His
Majesty Candragupta has actually arrived. 10 We have seen the
garden with interest. 1 1 (He) has gone either to the forest or to
the park. 12 Friends, we have been brought a long way by this
horse. 1 3 An end of doubt: here come the two pupils alive. 14
Even today it is with pleasure that we remember that extraordi-
nary sight. 15 Despair has conquered them. 16 Although as-
tonished by this sight, they are not giving up the attempt.

cn

Paradigms: m. and n. of k&nta, aham, tvam, sah, esah and
ayam; present indicative of as ‘be’

Sanskrit grammarians discussed the cases of the noun in terms
of inflexional morphemes modifying the nominal stem. In addi-
tion to the vocative (sambuddhi, not regarded as on a par with
the other cases), those so far introduced have been the nomina-
tive (prathama ‘first (inflexion)’), the accusative (dvitfyS ‘sec-
ond’) and the instrumental (trtlya ‘third’). The order of the cases
in Sanskrit was principally determined by the wish to group like
endings together. The following is a brief sketch (by no means a
full account) of the chief uses of the remaining cases.

Dative (caturthJ ‘fourth’): ‘to, for’

Of all the cases the dative has the smallest scope. In Middle Indo-
Aryan dialects it was lost, merged into the genitive. Even in
Sanskrit itself the tendency of the genitive to usurp the traditional
functions of the dative is very noticeable. The dative may be used
to denote the indirect object after verbs of giving, telling, etc.:

sfbung dattam may! brahmanebhyah -
dravinam I have given the brahmins wealth

But in such a sentence the genitive biahmananam may be sub-
stituted for the dative.

However the dative in Classical Sanskrit does have one function
not shared by any other case, that of denoting purpose or result.
The best translation in English is often by means of an infinitive:

vflT? TOlfil iJMW safari Landram gacchSmi nrpasya
darsanSya I’m going to London [for the seeing of:]* to see

an^nt 31^: HI«*K: I angan5m bhanglya Srudhah

balaih prtkirah the children climbed the wall [for the
brealong of:] only to break their limbs

Especially noteworthy is the use of such a dative as a predicate
in itself:

inNfironl I sarvam atimStram dosSya all (that is) ex-
cessive [is for a fault:] becomes reprehensible

Ablative (pancamt ‘fifth’): ‘from'

The ablative expresses the relationship ‘from’:

•HKIdJUtllWT TOsfil I nagantt ksetrSni gacchati he goes from
the city to the fields

When a causal relationship is implied, translations such as ‘be-
cause of’ may be used: th)*u<t v krodhskt ‘from anger’, ‘out of
anger’, ‘because of anger’, ‘through anger’.

The ablative of comparison will be mentioned later.

Genitive (sasthi ‘sixth’): 'of, ’s/s”

The genitive is the case with the widest range of uses. It most
often qualifies another substantive, and has a possessive sense of
some kind:

TOPTOPT: I nrpasya krodham na avagacchamah
we do not understand me king’s anger/the anger of the king

Where the substantive embodies a verbal notion, the rela-
tionship may be either subjective or objective, just as the word
‘its’ in English is subjective in the phrase ‘its consumption of
electricity’ and objective in ‘its consumption by the community’,
nrpasya in the prec eding example is subjective (the king is
angry); in nrpasya darsanam when this means ‘sight

of the king’ it is objective (I see the king).

The use of the genitive as an alternative to the dative after verbs
of giving, telling, etc. has been mentioned. Furthermore, it is the
genitive and not the dative that should be used in relation to ad-
jectives to express ‘point of view*, conveyed in English by ‘to’ or
‘for’.

mitranam eva priyam etat darsanam to
friends, this is a welcome sight

S15 ^ISRC’pT: I tat sthikne asya ‘Vrsalah’ devah
Candraguptah then appropriately is His Majesty
Candragupta (just) ‘Vrsala’ to him

7 ' 5 ?: M^tui gTOTO | srutam — na pun ah paryiptam
hrdayasya (I) have heard, yet (it is) not sufficient for (my)
heart

Similarly, past participles formed from roots meaning ‘to know’,
‘to desire’ or ‘to honour’, such as fsrfot vidita ‘known’, take a
genitive (instead of an instrumental of the agent) when used ad-
jectivally:

ajfir I api viditam etat devasya? is this known

to Your Majesty?

But:

3rfh fNwfiniW: I api viditah devena tesSm abhi-

prityah? did Your Majesty (get to) know their intentions?

The possessive adjective madlya ‘my, mine’ was given in the
previous chapter. There are various others— e.g.
mSmaka (same meaning), yusmadlya ‘belonging to (all

of) you’, etc. More commonly, however, the genitive of the ap-
propriate pronoun is used instead of the possessive adjective: .

TO ’JTO mama grham [the house of me:] my house

TO qtaiRu mama ksetrSni my fields

tava putrah your sons (addressing one person)

yusmakam putrah your sons (addressing sev-
eral persons)

3 «nftr kasya puspini? whose flowers?

tasyahastau his hands

The unemphatic forms of the first and second person
pronouns (h me, ^ nau, etc.) may also be used. Like the ordi-
nary forms, they may either precede or follow their substantive,
but as enclitics they may not stand first in the sentence.

ffr gt W : I ime nah grhah here is our house (the plural of
grha often has a singular sense)

Generally speaking, neither possessive adjectives nor the geni-
tives of pronouns may be used to refer to the subject or ‘logical
subject’ of a sentence. If necessary, the reflexive adjective sva
‘my own, your own, his own, their own, etc.’ or the genitive

chapters

singular of the reflexive word anw^Stman ‘self’ may be em-
ployed, but it is usually omitted unless exceptional emphasis is
intended, [sva is often compounded with its substantive, while as
a separate word atmanah is more normal.]

Tjaraajfw putrin raksati he protects his sons

<TPT prapfir tasya putrSn raksati he protects his [i.e. the
other’s] sons

1V#V gVERfllv sv3n eva putriin raksasi you protea your
own sons

Because the omission of the reflexive possessive is standard, it is
from now on not normally indicated in the exercises by any
bracketing of the English word: ‘he proteas his sons’, not ‘he
protects (his) sons’.

Locative (saptami ‘seventh’): ‘at, in, on, among;
into, onto’

The locative expresses such notions as station or circumstance:
carati vane kim cit something is moving in

the forest

vrai : phalake balah upavistah the children

are seated on the table

v f% mitranam darsane na kim cit vadati

[at the sight of:] on seeing his friends he says nothing

It also expresses the end result of motion:

V# VI# fijWfil jale balam ksipati he throws the child into
the water

It can bear the sense ‘in the matter of’:

ararft S$ vsfito# apapah aham Parvatesvare I am guiltless
[in the matter of:] towards Parvatesvara

In particular it is used to denote the objea of feelings (English
‘towards’, ‘for’):

avagacch&mi te tasmin sauhlrdam
I understand your fondness for him

It thus occurs after a verb such as f^^snih ‘feel affection (for)’:

^ ^ VI# sftnlNv fV ^ fulfil # 33VHJ kim nu khalu
bale as min aurase iva putre snihyati me hrdayam? now

why indeed does my heart feel affection for this child as for
a son of my own loins?

The use of the locative in expressing circumstance leads to the

‘locative absolute’ construction (Chapter n).

Expressions of time

Many of the cases are used in expressing statements of time. The

following is an indication of the main usages:

(a) Accusative, ‘time during which’:

APsaWAWpill trfa divasSn b hr am anti they wander for
three days

(b) Instrumental, ‘time within which’:

% sfh HTCfTT : I te api tribhih divasaih nagaram

praptah and they reached the city in three days

(c) Ablative (sometimes genitive), ‘time after which’:

% sfa fsrwit fort**: vm: I te api tribhyah divasebhyah
praptah and they arrived after three days

fat'W <ni«i44 sftri cirasya kalasya praptah asi you
have arrived after a long time/at long last

(d) Locative, ‘time at which’:

% sfh 7»lt UPW: I te api trtlye divase nagaram

praptah and they reached the city on the third day

ayam

The irregularity of the declension of the pronoun ayam is partly
due to the fact that it derives from two stems: one a (cf. the ad-
verbs 3TO atra and 3PT: atah, the other i (cf. fit iha and fW: itah).

Two pronouns are conventionally translated by the English
‘that’: ft: sah and asau (Chapter 13 ); and two by the English

‘this’: SHP^ayam and esah. Traditionally, the distinctions are
that sah is used of what is not present to the speaker asau of
what is remote from him (though possibly visible), ayam of what
is present and esah of what is near at hand. Thus asau is the
‘stronger’ of the two which mean ‘that’, esah the ‘stronger’ of
the two which mean ‘this’.

chapters

J chapter 5

It is evident that even if these distinctions were adhered to there
would be considerable overlap within each pair (and also that
ayam in particular might represent ‘that’ as well as ‘this’). In
practice, the distinctions are somewhat blurred and, at any rate,
not always easy to apply. A different distinction is that, used in
reference to discourse, esah means ‘what precedes’, ayam ‘what
follows’.

33ft I srutva etat idam vadati hearing this, he says
the following

This rule also is not universally observed, but it is true enough
to be worth remembering.

In the oblique cases other than the accusative (and in practice to
some extent in all cases), ayam may be used simply as an unem-
phatic third person pronoun. In this sense it is usually enclitic.

(Rhlitat 1 krodham es3m na avagacchami I don’t

understand their anger

Pronominal adjectives

Certain common adjectives in a follow wholly or in part the
pronominal rather than the nominal declension, anya ‘other’
does so wholly: its neuter singular nominative/accusative is
anyat (cf. the d of Latin aliud). TOi sarva ‘all’, eka ‘one’ and
sva ‘own’ are also wholly pronominal, except that their
neuter singular nominative/accusative is Tfjfi^sarvam, tj^n^ekam,
W^svam.

usfti -imuiwd qpf: I sarveslm nrpanam ayam m&rgah this
is the path for all kings

ITCf 3TOI: I ekasmin eva dese sarve balah the
children are all in a single place

In conjunction with an interrogative, 3RT anya may be translated
by ‘else’:

3TO: W 3JPI3Sft I anyah kah agacchati? who else is coming?

ka§ clt and ko >pi

The addition of an indefinite particle, usually either fa^cit or 3lf^
api, turns the interrogative pronoun (‘who?’, ‘what?’) into an in-
definite pronoun (‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘a Iitde’,

‘a few’). The addition of ft na (‘not anyone’ etc.) gives the
Sanskrit for ‘no one’, ‘nothing’, etc.

%ft kena jalam pitam? who has drunk the water?

kena api jalam pitam/kena

cit jalam pitam someone/somebody has drunk the water

%ftrfft ftRf ft kena api jalam na pitam no one/nobody

has drunk the water

* <*(iU«Kfa I udySne na kah dt carati no one is walk-
ing in the park

ftft fft> fcj'wiH ftftfir I ft fft> I tava 1dm dt jalam bhavati?—
na kim dt eva have you any/a little water?— none at all
Interrogative adverbs are used in the same way:

ft I Kalahamsakam na leva dt pasy&ni I

don’t see Kalahamsaka anywhere

3ft: ftnwfft ft?: I krtah katham api ghatah somehow (he)
made the pot

ftiftftfft katham api or ftift fftii, katham dt has by extension
the sense ‘scarcely’, “with difficulty’:

ftftftraftfrftyftrffti candram katham api pasydmi I can only
just see the moon

65

as ‘be’

The verb as ‘be’, a very common irregular verb, is an athematic
of class II (Chapter 12 ). The six first and second person forms of
the present indicative provide an alternative to (and are, in fact,
much more frequent than) the use of pronominal^ subjects in
nominal and past participial sentences. So sfft

atikatarah asi as well as anfilftiftT^ft^ atikStarah tvam ‘you are
over-timid’, and ftftt gatah asmi as well as ftftt Sftft^gatah ah am
‘I went’. Similarly tRft ftft: dhanyau svah ‘the two of us are
lucky 5 , Hlftft prtptau sthah ‘the two of you have arrived’, etc.
These forms are normally enclitic.

The third person forms (auftft asti, tft: stah, ftfft santi), on the
other hand, are seldom if ever used as a copula but have exis-
tential force (‘there is’, ‘there are’) and most frequently stand as
the first word.

fttfi>3 ftftTftJ asti parvatesu nagaram there is in the
mountains a city

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§ chapter 5

3PT: mnfa l atah param api priyam asti? is there

(any) blessing beyond this?

asti etat this is — i.e. this is true, that is so

bhO ‘be’

This verb, a regular verb of class I, may mean in its non-copula-
tive uses either ‘exist’ (like as) or ‘come into existence’, ‘arise’:

WST : I bhavanti ca atra slokah and on this point
there are stanzas

I krodhat bhavati sammohah from anger
arises delusion

As a copulative verb it provides a less frequent alternative to a
nominal sentence, more particularly in general statements.

Tmifrd vafir tjfttfTCIHPg darsanam eva asya
ramanlyam bhavati paris ran t^niim the very sight of it is
delightful to the exhausted

‘To have’

The notion of the English ‘have’ in the sense of ‘possess’ is gen-
erally expressed by means of the genitive case: i.e. instead of
‘John has a hat’, one says ‘of John there is a hat’. However even
in this existential sense the verb as or bha is sometimes omitted.

tra Jjaiuii ? Melfiri tava putranam dhanam na bhavati
your sons have no money

3lfcr asti ca asmakam anyat api mitram

and we have another friend too

I srutam— asamtosah tu hrdayasya
(I) have heard, but [(there is) 'dissatisfaction for my heart:]
my heart has/feels no satisfaction ( Compare the use o/var-
tate [Chapter $].)

‘To feel’

As the above example suggests, there are various ways in which
the notion ‘to feel (an emotion etc.)’ might be represented in
Sanskrit. It may, however^ be worth pointing out that the equiv-
alent of iva in first person statements is often ‘feel’ (‘seem’
being inappropriate):

StyiTtJl asaranah iva asmi I feel helpless

The absolutive

Of an ancient verbal action noun in -tu (cf. the Latin supine) two
cases survive in Classical Sanskrit: the accusative, supplying the
Sanskrit infinitive (^ftnetuin ‘to lead’, with strengthening of the
root), and the instrumental, supplying the absolutive (or
‘gerund’, or ‘indeclinable participle’)— nftva ‘after leading,
by leading’, with weak grade of the root.

The absolutive in -tv3 is not difficult to form. With very few
exceptions it may be obtained by substituting tv3 for the -ta or
-na of the past participle (with internal sandhi as appropriate). So
3WOT uktva ‘aft er say ing’, ^gT drstva ‘after seei ng’, labdhvS
‘after taking’, patitvS ‘after falling’, Iw tirtva ‘after

crossing’.

The absolutive in -tva may not be used when a verb is com-
pounded with a prefix or prefixes. In such a case the suffix -ya
(probably itself the instrumental of an old action noun in -i) is
added to the verb, which usually appears in its weaker form. In
internal sandhi, fortunately, y is without effect on the preceding
sound. Roots ending in a short vowel add -tya instead of -ya,
and those roots ending in -an/-am which shorten to -a in the
past participle may optionally do so (again shortening to -a). So
#|Pf samdrsya ‘after seeing’, pratyucya ‘after replying’,

vijitya ‘after conquering’, Sgamya or tMHIWJ Sgatya
‘after coming’.

(A minor exception to both the above formations is pro-
vided by derivative verbs in -ayati. They form their past
participle in -ita but their simple absolutive in -ayitva. In the
compounded absolutive, they substitute -ya for -ayati in gen-
eral but -ayya if the vowel of the stem is unstrengthened. So
gamayitva ‘after causing to go’, 3IFPTO Sgamayya ‘after
causing to come’, pravesya ‘after causing to enter’.

See pp. 85 - 7 .)

The sense of the absolutive is generally that of action preceding
the action of the main verb. Its closest equivalent is often there-
fore in primer English the perfect participle (‘having led’) and in
ordinary English the present participle (‘leading’).

’I? ^ mRumRi grham tyaktva vane paribhramati

leaving his home, he wanders about in the forest

This might alternatively be translated as ‘he leaves his home
and wanders. . .’. In English both versions are possible. In

s idjcftnio g

Sanskrit a sequence of events is almost invariably represented
by the use of absolutives rather than by clauses connected with
^ ca.

3BT* imTT ^gT udySnam pravisya

kumaram drstva praticchandakam Scchadayati he enters
the garden, sees the young man, and hides die picture

TJSPngS putram ShOya prcchami I’ll call my son and

ask him

The subject of the action expressed by the absolutive is not nec-
essarily the grammatical subject of the sentence. Rather it is the
logical subject, which in passive sentences will be in the instru-
mental case and in some other sentences in yet some other case:

tena api slokam avagamya
prativacanam uktam and he understood the stanza and
spoke a reply

3muii 1 g>*u< 5 >qj 5 c>i MUfir nrpSnam tu kumiram

drstva atyantam kutohalam bhavati [but of the kings,
having seen the young man, an intense curiosity arises:]
but the kings, on seeing the young man, feel an intense
curiosity

Sometimes the logical subject itself remains unexpressed:

quaufafrila ftqfa Rrlftsltt: >: katham acirena eva

nirmaya likhitah slokah [what, after composing within a
very short while, a stanza has been written:] why, he has
(/you/they have) rapidly composed and written out a stanza

WrtWERJ hanta bhoh-
Sakuntalam visrjya labdham idanim svasthyam Oh, in
bidding farewell to SakuntaU (I) have now found ease

khalu

^3^3 khalu, like ^ eva, is an enclitic pardde of emphasis. But
whereas eva is an affirmative particle stressing what is new,
khalu is a confirmatory particle tending to stress what is already
implicitly known. In consequence, whereas eva often marks out
a predicate, khalu may equally well qualify the subject (or per-
haps spread its emphasis more evenly over the whole statement).
The subject is then usually placed first in the sentence. For
convenience, khalu is represented in the exercises by ‘indeed’,

‘assuredly’, ‘of course’, ‘after all’, ‘certainly’.

3TCIJT: I d&runah khalu asi you are indeed cruel

3>nn(?ra>: Wtfa: I kapllikah khalu esah this man is
assuredly a monster

GWHfvi*K: I anutsekah khalu vikramaalam-
kSrah modesty, after all, is valour’s ornament

External sandhi

Now that a wider range of forms is occurring in the exercises,
attention is drawn to two disconcerting rules of external sandhi:
(a) final n preceded by a short vowel is doubled when the next
word begins with a vowel (thus when n closes a word, the final
syllable can never be light) and (b) t combines with a following
s to make cch.

CJI

Vocabulary

aUTtfiT: Svegah alarm

WtT: uptyah method,
means, way

^pTTT: kumirah (well-born)

young-man; prince;
Your/His Highness
SJTTT : ksanah instant of
time, second, moment
t&T: desah place; country
padah foot
ipi puspam flower

pustakam book

p rati cch andakam
portrait, picture
xfiicw'i prativacanam
answer; reply
tTPf: mSrgah road
fa* mi tram (N.B. gender)
friend

Ufjf muhurta m./n. short
while, ‘minute’

333T hrdayam heart,
mind

(Kalahamsaka, Madhava and Rama are proper names.)

ayam ( pron .) this
3RT andha blind
3RT anya (pron.) other
eka (pron.) one

kas cit / ko >pi
(see chapter text)

W kina one-eyed
papa evil, bad; m.
villain

sarva (pron.) all,
every; n. sg. everything;
m. sg. everyone

chapter5

aifoftiyt, abhi + likh (VI STfvfcngfir abhilikhati) draw (picture)
31 ^ as (II aaffcr asd) be, exist
Ug, grah (IX grhnid) seize, take

pat (I inifir patari) fall

TP£ pra + bhO (I 1 TV 3 fir prabhavati) arise; prevail, have power
H bbfl (I H 3 fir bhavati) become, be
% sru (V sraoti) heat; listen

3 lftT api and ( sentence khalu indeed etc.

connective, placed 5 w (enclitic) but,

after subject) however

fttFftH id&nim now IT ha ah! oh!

?? iha here; in this world

Exercise 5a Translate into English:
fift ‘tar: it i irfirawr * gar RMHiftwfti it i % jkwih^ 13 1
eem «ePiaifa mr ix i srfaiifr ^ fg c fay i ie :
i$i ^ -ai^i-MimsKi^jigioi ; ifc i nftrftr mr fsnm

\c i rfforc re r far tt iti atf fwufVmfi i ifoisnr
HTO ii)3ta Eiy<i ^ n et ^< Pr mi «i*r: *rtsfir*n»iNirafir it? i
5:tdi4<n RmiuiiRi<y4T <iwr it 3 1 aa^wit sfir i?xi

ft nftftr S3 eatei'ff tr dnr ffir «<nf^wRi itm awnt^tanijinii
rnrafir ifii^a&rarfctamroq jift«*K*nf»tf«Rsi<iH. nt^n

Exercise 5b Translate into Sanskrit:

i You are blind indeed, 2 From this house he was led to the
woods. 3 And they went to the park and seized the villains.
4 The anger of these two is extraordinary. 5 You have been
seen, (my) sons. 6 But we have friends in Candanadasa’s
house. 7 I ask because I’m tired. 8 We have seen this on all
the country’s roads. 9 Your Majesty, I am that same prince. 10
He falls at the blind (man)’s feet. 11 By some means I saw
(them) all. 12 This reply of the prince (will make) for anger.
13 But hearing this they sit in the road. 14 Kalahamsaka, we
have no interest in books. 1 5 In just one garden there are a few
flowers. 1 6 Even after seeing everything Your Highness says
nothing. 17 What, have you doubt about it [atta]? 18 Oh
Makaranda, oh Kalahamsaka, your friend has gone. 19 But
the prince stayed in another place and heard the villain’s whole
reply. 20 What advantage does this (man) see in anger?

Paradigms: f. of kanta; f. of sah, ayam and other pronouns

Feminine gender

In addition to the masculine and neuter genders so far presented,
Sanskrit has a feminine gender. Feminine substantives
in -a decline like the feminine of the adjective kanta. There
are no masculine or neuter substantives that end in this -a,
and no feminine substantives in -a. The majority of adjectives
(among them all past participles) that end in -a form their
feminine in -a. A substantial minority, however^ form their
feminine in -I and inflect like nadi ‘river’ (among this group
are most adjectives formed by vrddhi derivation). A certain
•number of adjectives have the option of either formation: so
papa or papl (the latter is the more archaic form), feminine of
papa ‘wicked’. Adjectives in -a with feminines in -I are so
indicated in the vocabulary, but the use of forms in -I is not
required in this chapter.

There is, of course, concord of adjectives, including
pronominal adjectives, with feminine substantives:

vayasya, iyam sa vartta friend, this is that news

Determinative compounds

Present-day English shows a considerable fondness for form-
ing determinatives. If the food we buy nowadays cannot
be urged on us as either ‘home-baked’ or ‘farm-fresh’, it is at
least quite likely to be ‘oven-ready’. A determinative compound

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72

is one in which the final element, whether adjective or substan-
tive, is merely further defined by what precedes it:

i black: bird, girkfriend
z door-stop

3 sword-fight

4 dining-room

5 book-learning

6 status-symbol

7 side-door

newtfound, icexold

man-eating

hand-written

accident-prone

trouble-free

class-conscious

home-made

Each of the above examples is a limited exemplification of its
final element. A blackbird is a bird, but of a particular kind; a
dining-room is a room, but for a particular purpose. Similarly,
the adjectives (including past participles) in the second column
mean: cold to a particular degree, free from a particular thing,
and so on.

If we compare determinative with other compounds, the point
will become even clearer. Twenty: eight is not a particular kind
of eight. Bare; foot is not a particular kind of foot (in fact, the
compounded word is not even a substantive). Richard the
Lion -heart was not a heart. And an over head railway is not a
‘head railway’ of a special sort. (Our use of the underscore is
explained on p. ioo.)

In analysing in English the meaning of determinatives, we can
usually make use of a preposition, chosen according to the sense
of the compound. ‘Home-made’ no doubt means made in the
home or at home (cf. home-baked); but ‘hand-made’ must mean
made by hand or with one’s hands. In Sanskrit it is broadly pos-
sible to express the relationship between the elements of any par-
ticular determinative (tatpurusa) compound in terms of one of
the seven cases. The above English examples are set out accord-
ing to this analysis. Compounds analysed as involving nominative
relationship will be discussed below. Those involving relationship
in any oblique case (accusative to locative) are known as depend-
ent determinatives.

Dependent determinatives

In the punctuation of compounds in this book, dependent
determinative relationship is represented by a hyphen. ,
Occasionally, when a more precise analysis is desired, a number :

from 2 to 7 is superscribed, representing the particular case. So
paksa-dvdram ‘side-door’, with locative (saptaml ‘seventh case’)
relationship.

Assignment to a particular oblique case may sometimes be
arbitrary, and irrelevant to understanding of the compound.
‘Book-learning’ has been taken to be learning from books, but it
might be thought of as learning in books (locative) or perhaps
by means of books (instrumental). As an example of accusative
case relationship, ‘door-stop’ may not be thought entirely
convincing (it is here treated as ‘a stop (which stops) a door’,
but perhaps it is simply ‘a stop for a door’ or ‘the stop of a
door’). The point is, of course, that the accusative case essen-
tially relates nouns to verbs. The corresponding relationship be-
tween substantives is expressed by the objective genitive. In a
sense nrpa-darsanam ‘king-seeing’ contains an accusative rela-
tionship, but expressed by separate words it would appear as
nrpasya/nrpayor/ nrpanam darsanam ‘sight of the king/kings’.
(A subjective genitive relationship may also be expressed by
a determinative compound: in the appropriate context
nrpa-darsanam could also mean ‘sight by the king’ etc.)

The last example will serve to remind you of the principle that
stem forms are indeterminate between singular; dual and plural.
There is a similar indeterminacy in English, as the example ‘book-
learning’ will have suggested. In the same way a ‘garage-owner’
may own one or many garages. A phrase such as ‘child welfare’
(the welfare of children) shows that determinative relationship in
English may exist between words not joined by a hyphen.

Although such compounds are frequent in English, they are by
no means substitutable in all circumstances for more analytical
turns of phrase. In general they denote characteristic rather than
ad hoc relationships. A ‘hand-held’ camera is such by virtue of
its design or at least some deliberate policy of its user. We do not
say ‘He brandished the hand-held book’ instead of ‘He bran-
dished the book held in his hand’. In Classical Sanskrit there is
no such inhibition. Wherever nouns are connected among them-
selves by oblique case relationships, compounds are formed ex-
tensively. In fact, a long sentence composed entirely of short
words each with its own case termination would have seemed
unnecessarily clumsy.

samvadaty ubhayor MAlati-niveditah sarlr>-ak&rah [the
appearance-of-body reported-by-Malatl fits for both] they
are both as M&latl described them

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74

kala-jna devi — kary >- oparodham me pariharati Her Majesty
is [‘occasion-knowing’] tactful— she avoids interruption-
of-my-business

The compound kala-jna illustrates the fact that a number of
forms are found at the end of determinative compounds which
would never be used as words by themselves. In particular many
verbal roots are so used, predominantly with an active
participial sense. If the root ends in a consonant, it is inflected
according to the consonant declension (to be described later).
Furthermore, roots ending in i, u or r add a euphonic t. But roots
in a and certain others are simplified so as to end in a, and are
inflected like kanta (thus kala-jna, from jh& know).

drs see
kr make
ji conquer
stha stand
jan be born

sarva^drs all-seeing
vighna-krt obstacle-making, interfering
satya-jit conquering by truth
marga-stha standing (/being) in the road
jala-ja born in the water

Very frequent also in such compounds is the root extended by
the suffix a. So side by side exist jala-ruh (consonant-stem) and
jala-ruha (inflected like kanta) ‘growing in the water’.

Occasionally compounds are found in which the first member
appears in an inflected instead of a stem form, and this is not
uncommon when the final member cannot be used as an inde-
pendent word. So agre-ga ‘going in front’ from agram ‘front’
and the root gam. From the same root hrdayamgama ‘going to
the heart’. An example of a case termination (here dative singu-
lar) before a word which also occurs independently is the gram-
matical term parasmai-padam ‘word for another active voice’.
In such instances, one of the most important criteria for the ex-
istence of a compound rather than two separate words is lack-
ing, but others remain: in Vedic, specialised meaning or unity of
accent; in Classical Sanskrit, specialised meaning or the ability
to occur as part of a longer compound.

The word arthah ‘purpose’ is used adverbially at the end of com-
pounds, usually in the accusative case, artham, to mean
‘for the sake of’: udak>-artham ‘for the sake of water’, ‘for
water’, ‘to get water’; kim-artham ‘for the sake of what’, ‘for
what purpose’, ‘why?’.

The first member of a dependent determinative must be a nomi-
nal or pronominal substantive, or a substantially used adjective
(e.g. priya m. and priya f. ‘loved one’— or the first of these two
forms, priya, used with neuter significance, ‘benefit, service’). This
does not apply to the other class of determinative compounds.

Descriptive determinatives

For this type of determinative there is a special name in Sanskrit,
karmadharaya. The notion that it expresses nominative relation-
ship between the two members should not be pressed too far, for
where the final member is an adjective it is not usually possible
to achieve even an approximate representation of the sense of
the compound merely by assigning the same case ending to the
first member as to the second. The point is rather that in de-
scriptives the first element stands in an attributive relationship
(represented in the punctuation by a colon) to the second. Where
the second element is a noun, the relationship is adjectival, the
first element being either an adjective or a substantive used ‘ad-
jectivally’, that is to say in apposition. Where the second element
is an adjective, the relationship is adverbial, and the first element
is either an adverbially used adjective (or sometimes an actual
adverb) or an adverbially used substantive. Karmadharayas may
thus conveniently be discussed under four main headings.

i Adjective + substantive (black:bird). What is true of such
compounds in English originally applied in Sanskrit too. They
were used principally where the compound had a conventional sig-
nificance transcending the separate meanings of its parts. In the
same way that ‘blackbird’ in English does not mean just any bird
that is black, so the equivalent Sanskrit compound krsnaisakuni
meant, in fact, a crow. Even in the Classical period it remains true
that an adjective qualifying a substantive preserves its own inflex-
ion in the vast majority of cases, in preference to being com-
pounded in its stem form with the latter. However, there was a
continuous whittling away at this principle. It was often violated
in verse for reasons of metrical convenience. Common adjectives
of unemphatic meaning such as maha ‘great’ and sva ‘(my etc.)
own’ may be used fairly freely, and so may common collocations
such as priyarvayasyah ‘dear friend’. In later Sanskrit prose words
like sarva ‘all’ and anya ‘other’ are compounded in karmadharayas
with increasing frequency. In the exercises you should not yourself
form karmadharayas of adjective plus substantive unless directed
to do so. (But this does not apply to karmadharayas forming part
of a longer compound: see Chapter 7.)

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i

An adjective has only one stem form for all three genders,
deriving from that of the masculine-neuter, So priya:saldil ‘dear
[female] friend’, not priyasakhl, which could only be either two
separate words or a dependent compound meaning ‘friend of
(my) sweetheart’.

2 Substantive + substantive (girhfriend). In these compounds
the substantives are in appositional relationship: so rfijaarsi
‘king-seer’. In particular, titles are compounded: amfitya:
Bhflrivasu ‘Minister Bhurivasu’, bhatt>:6dbhatah ‘Dr Udbhata’.
Other types are strf:janah ‘womenfolk’, dhvani:sabdah ‘the word
“dhvani”’. Where proper names are involved, the expected
order is sometimes reversed: thus Rfima:bhadrah ‘dear
‘Rama’, Slta:devl ‘Queen Slta’.

One particular type of karmadharaya made from two
substantives is of great importance in literary style. It may be
called the karmadharaya of comparison. According to Sanskrit
literary critics, it embodies the figure of speech called rfipakam
‘metaphor’ (as opposed to upama ‘simile’), in which one makes
a comparison by stating directly that something is something
else. So if we take the word padmam‘lotus’ and qualify it by the
word padah ‘foot’, we have the compound pfida:padmam ‘foot
lotus, a lotus consisting of a foot’. This means, in effect, ‘a
lotus-like foot’, and such compounds are often so translated,
though strictly speaking such translations would exemplify
upama and not rfipakam. The more literal way to translate
these compounds is by means of the preposition ‘of’, also use-
ful in translating other types of appositional karmadharaya, e.g.
Kahci:puram ‘the city of KaficI’: so ‘the lotus of (your) foot’;
smita:jyotsna ‘the moonlight of (her) smile’; nara:pumgavah ‘a
bull of a man’, etc.:

katham, idanlm unmad>:oparaga eva Madhav>:endum
askandati what, does the eclipse of insanity now attack
the moon of Madhava? (i.e. does insanity engulf him, like
an eclipse engulfing the moon?)

3 adjective/adverb + adjective (new: found). So from udagra
‘intense’ and ramanlya ‘lovely’, udagra:ramanfya ‘intensely
lovely’. A past participle as a final member is particularly com-
mon: nava:baddha ‘new-bound, newly bound’; madhur>:okta
‘spoken sweetly’.

The first member may be an actual adverb: punarntkta ‘spoken
again, repeated’; anyath&vfidin ‘speaking otherwise’;
bahih:sruta ‘heard outside’; atra:stha ‘standing here’.

^Certain past participles may be qualified adverbially by words
jwhich in a verbal sentence would stand in a predicative rela-
ijtionship. So corresponding to the sentence sa sranta agacchati
‘he arrives tired’ is the compound sr&nt>:igata ‘arriving tired’. In
particular substantives, adjectives or adverbs which would ap-
pear as the complement of the verb bhG ‘be’ may qualify its past
^participle bhflta ‘having become, being’: so nimitta:bhGta ‘being
rthe cause’, sukumSrabh&ta ‘being delicate’, evambhGta ‘being
'so’, bhfita need not always be translated into English, serving
merely to smooth or clarify the construction in Sanskrit, e.g.:

, mad-anuja-marana-mmitta:bhutaySh papaya Balacandrikayah
of the wicked Bilacandrika, cause of my brother’s death . . .

(Occasionally an instance occurs of an adverb predicatively
qualifying a substantive: alam anyath&sambhavanayG ‘enough
of supposing otherwise’.)

<4 substantive + adjective (ice:cold). A substantive adverbially
qualifying an adjective typically implies a comparison: luma:
sisira ‘ice-cold, cold as ice’; pr&na:priya ‘dear as life’.

As karmadharayas, these compounds have such a meaning.
■Ambiguity arises, however because they may often be inter-
preted as dependent determinatives with, for instance, instru-
mental or ablative relationship: so hima-sisira might mean ‘cold
| because of the ice’. The same author may write in one place
jpriyangu:sy&ma ‘dark as the black vine’, and in another
k&dambinl-syamala ‘(skies) dark with raindouds’.

Prepositions

The relationships expressed by the Sanskrit case terminations
are expressed in English by a number of prepositions: ‘to’,
‘with’, ‘for’, ‘from’, ‘in’, etc. The existence of six oblique cases,
each used in a variety of circumstances, means that the use of
prepositions is a comparatively unimportant feature of Sanskrit.
In the Vedic language (as in other Indo-European languages) the
particles used as verbal prefixes are also found functioning as
prepositions, usually placed after the noun they govern. But in
Classical Sanskrit only two of these remain really important, a
and prati. a governs the ablative and usually means ‘up to’: a
samudrat ‘up to the ocean’. It is the only preposition regularly
placed before its noun (the others would more appropriately be
called postpositions), prati means firstly ‘towards, against’ and,
,by extension, ‘with regard to’: vanam prati ‘towards the forest’,
devasy>asvasthyam prati ‘with respect to Your Majesty’s illness’.

chapter 6

anii (with accusative) ‘after’ also occurs. Related to the verbal
prefix sam is the preposition saha referred to in Chapter 4.

In addition, there are a number of prepositions of adverbial and
nominal origin, for instance vina (usually with instrumental)
‘without’, pascat (with ablative or genitive) ‘behind’. These
shade into the use, with the genitive, of a number of nouns of
somewhat blunted meaning, e.g. madhye ‘in the middle of,
among’: eka eva mama putianam madhye ‘one alone among my
sons’. Instead of the genitive, a determinative compound may be
formed:

tan-madhyat lam idam ekam? is this one [from among:] of
them?

jala-margena pasyamah let us watch [by way of:] through
the window

Occasionally such compounding occurs even with actual
prepositions: e.g. rath>-6pari instead of rathasy> opari ‘upon
the chariot’.

Verbal action nouns in a

It is well worth noticing the more important types of nominal
stem formation from the Sanskrit root, not in order to form such
stems for oneself but in order to make sense of the
relationship between various individual items of vocabulary.
One of the most important is the addition of a to the root to
form a masculine substantive. Normally the root appears in
guna grade, and the predominant meaning is of an abstract ‘ac-
tion’ noun: so from the root krudh ‘be angry’, krodhah ‘anger’.
Similarly, but with some development of meaning, from dis
‘point’, desah ‘point, place, country’.

The verbal root and the derived noun may have a
prefix: sam + dih ‘smeary confuse’, samdehah ‘confusion, doubt’;
upa + i ‘approach’, upayah ‘approach, means’.

Vrddhi instead of guna is quite often found, but only where
the resulting vowel is S: vi + sad ‘be dejected’, visadah ‘dejec-
tion’; bhr ‘bear’, bharah ‘burden’. The longer grade is particu-
larly found after a prefix: thus from ru ‘roar’, ravah ‘roar’ but
samrivah ‘uproar’.

A point to be noted particularly is that (for historical
reasons) roots ending in a palatal stop usually change that stop
to the corresponding velar: vij ‘start; tremble’, avegah/samvegah
‘agitation’; sue ‘grieve’, sokah ‘grief’.

Among examples of the formation in the vocabulary of Exercise
6 are:

anu + si lie alongside, anusayah consequence, regret

abhi + las crave, abhilSsah craving

a + rabh begin, arambhah beginning

pari + has laugh, parihlsah laughter

prati + sidh forbid, pratisedhah prohibition

pra + vis entei^ pravesah entry

vi + ava + hr deal with, vyavahlrah dealings, usage

79

Ambiguities of external sandhi

Sometimes the operation of different sandhi rules can lead to a
single result, so that the final form is ambiguous. The following
are the ambiguities most likely to cause difficulty:

i nn may represent t + n or n + n.

Example: asmanna*- asmat + na or asman + na

Furthermore, if the vowel preceding the nn is short, this may
represent the sandhi of final n before a vowel.

Example : pasyannaste *- pasyan + 3ste, pasyan + n§ste or
pasyat + naste

z a before a vowel other than a may represent ah or e.

Example: asva eva asvah + eva or asve eva

(Theoretically the a might also represent a final o, but this is
rare.)

3 a before a voiced consonant may represent ah or simple a.
Example: kanya nayati «- kanyih nayad or kanya nayati

4 cch may represent t + s or t + ch.

Example: asmacchalat *- asmat + salat or asmat + chalat

5 ggh etc. may represent a stop followed by h or by gh etc.
Example: asmaddhrtat «- asmat + hrtat or asmat + dhrtat

6 Long vowel followed by r may represent long/short vowel
with h or itself alone.

chapter 6

chapters

Example : surf raksati «- sucih raksati, sucih + raksati orj
sucl + raksati '

The sandhi of two vowels is also a source of ambiguity, but here]
a learner is less likely to assume one particular resolution;
of the sandhi. The possibilities implicit in the sandhi vowels!
a, I, fi, e, ai, o, au are set out in Table z.z.

Vocabulary

aksaram syllable, written
character

anarthah reverse, disaster
anusayah repentance, regret
abhijna conversant with (gen.)
abhilasah craving, passion for
(loc.)

amatyah minister
amba (irreg. voc. amba) mother
(either one’s own or as a title
of respect)

avastha state, condition
asphuta unclear, illegible
agamanam coming, arrival
arambhah beginning
arya noble, honourable;

f. noble lady
asanka apprehension
asa hope
asramah hermitage
fdrsa (f. f) of this kind, such
uddesah region, part, place
uparagah eclipse
ubha both (only dual)
katama (pr. adj.) which?
kanya girl, daughter
kasta grievous, harsh kastam
alas

karyam task
kalah time
kulam family
kusalam welfare

Kusumapuram name of city
Kaumudi-mahotsavah Full
Moon Festival
caritam conduct, deeds
dnta worry
tapasah ascetic
Duhsantah pr. n.
dvayam couple, pair (one way
of expressing two)
niyata constrained; niyatam
necessarily
niyojyah servant
nirvanam bliss
netram eye

pathah (usually ifc.) path
parihasah joke
puram city

paurah citizen; paura:janah
citizens, townsfolk
Pauravah descendant of Puru
praja subject (of king)
pratisedhah prohibition,
cancellation

prathita widely known
pradesah place
prayojanam purpose
pravatam breeze
pravesah entry, entering
priya beloved (woman)
bhadra good; f. voc. madam
mandapa m./n. pavilion, bower
mahatrajah great king

mah»:6tsavah [great] festival,
i. holiday
Madhavyah pr. n.

n.

uridha deluded, idiotic; m. idiot

mrgah deer

Laksmanah pr. n.

ilata creeper

lokah world

v5rtta news

Vasavah (epithet of) Indra
vistlrna extensive
vrttantah news, happening
Vrsalah pr. n.

a + pat (I apatati) befall, happen

upa + gam (I upagacchati) go to, reach

pari + grah (IX parigrhnati) accept

pari + bhuj (VII paribhunakti; p.p. paribhukta) enjoy

pia + nam (I pranamati) make obeisance to (dat.lgen.lloc.lacc.)

prati + sidh (I pratisedhati) restrain, forbid

labh (I atm. labhate; p.p. labdha) take, gain, win

vi + pra + labh (vipralabhate) mislead, deceive

aho oh
ittham thus, so
iha here

Itim-artham for what purpose, why?
kutah? from where?

tat ( first word in sentence, frequent connecting particle) so, then

tarhi (usually enclitic) in that case

nanu surely (often in objection to a previous remark)

prati (race.) to, towards; with regard to

Note: The abbreviations ibc. and ifc. signify respectively ‘in the
beginning (i.e. as first half) of a compound’ and * in fine
compositi , as second half of a compound’.

iMaricah pr.
Imndii seal

vyavaMrah usage
vyasanam vice, vicious failing
vratam vow
£akuntal5 pr. n.

Sonottara pr. n.
sravanam hearing
srotriyah learned (brahmin),
scholar

samvegah agitation
satya true; satyam truly
subhaga delightful
seva attendance (upon some-
one), servitude
sthanam place, occasion;
sthane in place, appropriate

10)1

chapter 6

82

Exercise 6a Translate into English: «

viluihA

$VH 1$ I awl I* I ^rirfiwifif Hit

sum f^nf: l$l tgtncfPt: TJ3T |3 ^t: m

«twR*rrn^?l wfamsw: ^rar tifiifa?: «p

T«q ffwwHforci , i^o i m i s^mqwfo at tn3raft4 t >nft 5.^-.

ttumfirim obst^^t qnww ^mwg q nnt si w

^T: a^g ^ MwraH fr^ t T: R* I % TORCT %*rt R m ITT^ SPZlfa

% WW ' wraig fr Trfw i^i ^foqfafa<n.qqK Tfti mdfctfifldmft

fttratrefzri^ «raf% ir'sii

Exercise 6b Words joined together by points (•) should be
translated by a single compound.

i This is a deer-of-the-hermitage. z A beginning-in-the-task has
been made. 3 Here stands Minister-Raksasa. 4 Idiot, this is
no time-fopjokes. 5 In that case whose is this seal? 6 You are
indeed conversant with the usages-of-the-world. 7 Then did the -
townsfolk not accept [our-word:] what we said? 8 Oh, this-;
part-of-the-wood is delightful-fopits-breeze. 9 Do not be ap-t
prehensive. 10 (I) have gained a bliss-fopthe-eyes. nHow(isj
it that) you do not see R£ma’s condition? iz Sarngarava, such
agitation [of you:] on your part from-entering-the-city is indeed;
appropriate. 13 Descendants of Puru have this family*vow.
14 Madam, Duhsanta’s-conduct is widely known among hi’s
subjects. 15 Then have done now with the vice-of-hope. 16 1
do not of course truly have a passion for the ascetic’s-daughter.
17 But with regard to the eclipse-of-the-moon, someone has;
misled you [/".]. 18 I’ll stay for a while just here in the
bower-of-creepers enjoyed-by-(my)-beloved.

Paradigms: Unchangeable consonant stems (suhrd, manas, etc .);
nadl

Nominal stems ending in consonants

i The largest class of nouns in Sanskrit is the ‘thematic a’ class,
jthe members of which are inflected like asvah or phalam. But
•historically speaking, thematic a is a formational suffix added
either to a root or to an existing stem. Nominal stems ending in
a consonant in general represent an earlier stage of Indo-
European word formation. They may consist of a plain root
used in a nominal sense (so from yudh ‘fight’, yudh f. ‘battle’—
and, more important in Classical Sanskrit, the use of a root
form at the end of a determinative, as described in Chapter 6);
or of the root extended by some consonantal suffix (so from sad
‘sit’, sadas n. and sadman n. ‘seat’). There are two main reasons
why the inflexion of consonant stems is more complicated than
that of thematic a stems. One is that variations may occur in the
basic form of the stem in inflexion, due ultimately to an ancient
shift of accent. Stems exhibiting this variation are not intro-
duced until Chapter 8 . The other reason is that direct contact
between the final consonant of the stem and the case termina-
tions causes a number of internal sandhi changes. As opposed to
a single stem in thematic a, we have in fact a series of related
stems in c, j, t, th, d, dh, p, bh, s, s, h, as, is, us, etc.

The basic terminations of consonant stem nouns are
exhibited in the declension of the stem suhrd ‘friend’. Before a
vowel the stem final remains unchanged (except that s after i etc.
becomes s by internal sandhi— cf. Chapter 4 ); in the nominative
singular or before a termination beginning with a consonant , it
must be reduced to one of the ‘permitted finals’ and the rules of

3 chapter 7

external sandhi thereafter applied (with consequent voicing be-
fore bh, lack of voice before su). This reduction is according to
the following scheme (a number of sounds not actually occur-
ring as nominal stem finals are included for completeness):

k, kh, g, gh ; c, *j, s, *h become k
t, th, d, dh; ch, *j, jh; *s, s, *h become t
t, th, d, dh; *h become t
p, ph, b, bh become p
n, n become a
n, m remain
s becomes h, r remains
n, y, 1, v do not occur

The asterisked sounds (j s h) are those treated differently in i
different words: where ambiguity exists, the nominative singular j
form is added in brackets after the stem form in the vocabulary. j
In a number of words, for historical reasons, a final aspirate;
throws its aspiration back upon a preceding stop: go-duh-
‘cow-milking’, nom. sg. go-dhuk.

Feminine consonant stems are inflected like the masculine!
(though changeable masculine stems may often form correspond]
ding feminines in I). Among die unchangeable stems, neuters are"
rare— except for stems in s, which are rarely masculine or femi- j
nine (unless at the end of an exocentric compound). Neuter steins 1
have no termination in the nominative, vocative or accusative^
singular; add I for au in the dual; and i for ah in the plural, with]
n infixed before a final stop or sibilant and assimilated as appro-
priate to the class nasal or to anusvara. The nominative singular]
of masculine/feminine nouns in as is with lengthened a: ah. |

In addition to learning the paradigm suhrd, you should study 1
carefully the examples listed after it of stems ending in other]
consonants. j

' '!

Feminines in 7

The suffix I, inflected as in nadl, is important as forming a large
number of derivative feminine stems— in particular; ab;
mentioned above and in Chapter 6, the feminine of changeable
consonant stems and of many stems in a.

Causatives

In addition to a simple present tense formed according to one
(occasionally more than one) of the ten classes, and to perfect
and aorist tenses, to be described latei; a verbal root may form
some five other finite tense systems, all inflected as if they were
thematic presents like nayati/nayate. They are: future (nesyati
‘will lead’), passive (nlyate ‘is led’), causative (nlyayati ‘causes to
lead, makes (someone) lead, has (someone) lead/led’), desidera-
tive (ninlsati ‘wants to lead’) and intensive (nenlyate ‘leads
forcibly’). From the point of view of their formation, all these
five are on a more or less equal footing; but since the last three
are felt to involve a more fundamental modification of the
meaning of the verb and may make formations from their stems
(e.g. a past participle) outside the thematic a paradigm, they are
usually classed together as derivative or secondary conjugations.

Of these three the causative is by far the most important. It may
be regarded as having evolved out of the tenth verb class
through specialisation of form and meaning. The principal
features of its formation are the suffix aya and a strengthening
of the root. The syllable before aya should usually be heavy.
Therefore guna of the root is almost always employed where this
produces a heavy syllable: so from drs, darsayati ‘causes to see,
shows’. If the root when strengthened" to guna grade is still light,
vrddhi is usually employed: kr, k&rayati ‘causes to do’;
biifl, bhavayati ‘causes to be’. But a few causatives with light first
syllable are found: gam, gamayati ‘causes to go’; tvar, tvarayati
‘causes to hurry’. Among exceptional forms with neither guna
nor vrddhi (but still with heavy first syllable) are dus, dusayati
‘spoils’ and pf, pfirayati ‘fills’.

Most verbs ending in a and some others, including r ‘go’, adhi + i
‘study’ and optionally ruh ‘rise’, take the suffix p: stha, sthapay-
ati ‘establishes’; r, arpayati ‘transfers’; ruh, rohayati or ropayati
‘raises’. An important anomalous form (evidently denominative
in origin) is ghatayati ‘has killed, puts to death’ functioning as
the causative of han ‘kill’.

Causatives exist in English, though they are not a morphologically
prominent feature of the language. ‘Fell’ is the causative of ‘fall’—
‘he fells the tree’: so ‘lay’ of ‘lie’, ‘raise’ of ‘rise’. More frequently,
what is expressed by the Sanskrit causative we express by transi-
tive use of otherwise intransitive verbs:

vrkso rohati a tree grows artho vardhate wealth grows,
increases

e§ chapter 7

vrksam ropayati he grows a tree artham vardhayati
he increases his wealth

The frequency of causative forms in Sanskrit means that often
what we express by pairs of unrelated words in English is
directly expressed in Sanskrit by a causative formation:
jan ‘be born’, janayati ‘begets’; vi + dru ‘run away’, vidrlvayati
‘puts to flight, chases away’. In the same way the French
causative faire voir ‘make to see’ or the Sanskrit equivalent
darsayati may be translated by the English ‘show’.

Where, as in the earlier examples, a causative is formed from an
intransitive verb, the original subject becomes the object. Where
a causative is formed from an already transitive verb, the dis-
placed subject may either join the existing object as a further ob-
ject in the accusative case or be treated as an agent in the in-
strumental case:

diso harati h ha ram a servant carries the luggage

hSrayati bharam dasam he has a servant carry the luggage

harayati bharam d&sena he has the luggage carried by
a servant

Choice of one or the other is a matter of usage. Construction
with the instrumental may be taken as the general rule. But some
verbs, notably kr ‘do’ and hr ‘carry’, are found with either con-
struction. A number of others are regularly found with a double
accusative: among these are smirayati (smr ‘remember’) ‘reminds’,
3sayati (as ‘eat’) ‘feeds’, pSyayati ‘makes to drink’, adhy&payati
‘teaches’, bodhayati (budh ‘learn’) ‘informs’, lambhayati (irreg.
from labh) ‘causes to take’; and some other verbs with similar
meanings.

The formation of absolutives and past participles from the
causative stem has already been mentioned (Chapters 4 and 5).
In the past participle ita is simply substituted for aya. A point to
note in connection with the past participle is that causatives
construed with two accusatives often make the ‘secondary’ ob-
ject into the subject of the passive voice, leaving a ‘retained ac-
cusative’ as in English:

udakam lambhitt ete vrksSh these trees have been [caused
to take:] given water

samanantaram garbb-aS&dase varse ks&trena kalpen> opanlya
trayi-vidyam adhySpitau thereafter in the eleventh year from
[the womb:] conception, after being initiated according to

the ksatriya rite, (the two of them) were [caused to study:]
taught the Science of the Three (Vedas)

Some roots form causatives without causative meaning: so from
dhr ‘hold’, dharayati ‘he holds’. This might be considered a class
X verb if the forms dharati etc. were not also theoretically pos-
sible. Outside the present, formations are often made from the
simple root: past participle dhrta is commoner than dharita.
Much the same is true of pf , pOrayati ‘fills’, p.p. pQrna. With
some other verbs, although the simple present is not uncommon,
causative forms often seem to occur without any obvious dis-
tinction of sense: e.g. yunakti or yojayati (yuj) 'joins’; muncati or
mocayati (muc) ‘releases’; nisedhati or nisedhayati (ni + sidh)
‘prevents’.

Some causatives with well-established meanings behave like
simple verbs in their constructions. So darsayati ‘shows’, in ad-
dition to the construction with two accusatives, often takes a
genitive of reference: indrfyudham na kasya rid darsayati ‘he
does not show the rainbow to anyone’. Similarly, nivedayati
‘[causes to know:] informs’, like other verbs meaning ‘tell’, may
take a dative (or genitive) of the indirect object, while arpayati
‘transfers, hands over’ may behave like any verb of giving:
Sbharanam sfitasy> arpayati ‘he hands over his insignia to his
driver’.

87

Class X verbs

The present stem of verbs belonging to class X is formed with
the addition of the suffix aya: so from the root sprh ‘desire’,
sprhayati ‘he desires’. But, as has just been described, the
suffix aya in conjunction with a strengthening of the root is used
to form causatives, while another suffix, ya, frequently
preceded by a short a, is used in the formation of denominative
verbs (see Chapter 9). And, in fact, all but a handful of the verbs
classified by the grammarians under class X may be looked on
either as causatives (but lacking obvious causative significance)
or as denominatives (but receiving the old tonic accent upon the
first a, instead of upon the ya as do regular denominatives):

chad, chadayati covers

vara, varnayati depicts, describes (really from varnah
colour, appearance: the root varn is artificially contrived)

kath, kathayati relates, tells (really from katham how?—
i.e. says how, relates circumstances)

chapter 7

§ chapter 7

Karmadharayas with inseparable prefixes

Just as the second member of a dependent determinative may be
a form that cannot occur in isolation, so the first member of a
descriptive may be a prefix incapable of independent use. Under
this heading might logically be included all verbal nouns begin-
ning with prefixes. Thus, as a compound of gam an am ‘going’,
nirgamanam ‘outgoing’. But where corresponding verbal forms
occur or are possible (thus nirgacchati ‘goes out’), this analysis
is unnecessary.

Occasionally, however verbal prefixes are compounded
G)| with nouns where no corresponding verbal form exists: so
| adhi:pati ‘overrlord’, ati:dOra ‘extremely far’, pratimayanam ‘en-
countering eye’, prati:sabdah ‘[responding sound:] echo’,
a:sy£mala ‘darkish’.

More frequent are a number of prefixes never compounded with
finite verbs:

su (laudatory particle) ‘well, very’— su:krta ‘done well’,
su:pakva ‘well cooked, very ripe’, su:bha<lra ‘very good’,
su:janah ‘nice person’, su:vic3rah ‘proper thought’
dus (pejorative particle) ‘ill, badly’— dunukta ‘ill spoken’,
dus:cesta ‘misconduct’, dur:gandhah ‘bad smell, stench’

Like other prefixes ending in s and a few other initial forms in
compounds (e.g. namas ‘obeisance’ in namask&ra making
obeisance’), dus retains a final sibilant before k/kh and p/ph
(except when these in turn are followed by a sibilant). In
conformity with internal sandhi it appears as dus : dus:krta
‘ill done’. (Sandhi before other sounds follows the usual pattern.)

Corresponding to the verbal prefix sam, occurs occasionally sa or
saha ‘together’: sahaanaranam ‘dying together’, sa:brahmacarin
‘fellow-student*.

The most important karmadh&raya prefix is the negative parti-
cle a (before consonants) or an (before vowels). Unlike other
‘non-verbal’ prefixes, it may be compounded freely not only
with ordinary adjectives and substantives and with past partici-
ples but also with other participles and with absolutives and
gerundives: a:krta ‘unmade, undone’, an:ukta ‘unspoken’,
a:dharmah ‘unrighteousness’, an:ati:dQra ‘not particularly fat’,
an&gacchant ‘not coming’. The negation not infrequently
qualifies a whole compound: a:guna r jna ‘not recognising merit’,
a:loka- sSmanya ‘not common in the world’, a:klla ::: ksep>-arha
‘not brooking delay’.

Especially noteworthy is the use with the absolutive. The best
translation is usually ‘without’: atdrstva ‘not having seen,
without seeing’. Note that the addition of a/an, unlike that of a
verbal prefix, does not in itself entail the use of the compounded
(ya) form of the absolutive.

uttaram a:dattv» aiva prasthita she set off without giving any
reply

89

purva

A curious anomaly in the formation of karmadharaya com- g
pounds is that the word purva ‘previous’ used adverbially
may be placed after the word it qualifies; so purva:krta or
krta:pQrva ‘previously done, already done’.

ldm atrabhavatf may3 parinltarpOrva? did I previously marry
this lady?

Compounds of more than two members

Determinative compounds are based upon a relationship be-
tween a prior element and a final element. In a sense therefore a
determinative, considered in itself, cannot possibly consist of
more than two parts. However, either of these parts may in turn
on closer analysis be found to consist of a compound expression,
itself resolvable into its constituent parts. In English ‘waste
paper basket’ is a dependent: a basket not ‘for paper’ but ‘for
waste paper’. But the prior element is itself a compound, a de-
scriptive determinative ‘paper which is waste’, subordinated to a
larger whole. We may represent the subordination by brackets:
(waste:paper)-basket. Thus in Sanskrit:

Malatl-mukham Malatl’s face

(Malati-mukh>)-avalokanam gazing on Malatl’s face

From a different starting-point, mukh>-avalokanam ‘gazing on a
face’, we may arrive at a compound with the same form but a
different meaning:

MalatI-(mukh>-avalokanam) Malatl’s gazing on a face

The fact that this latter is a far less natural interpretation
illustrates an important point about Sanskrit compounds:
they build up as they go along. As each element is added to the
compound, it should form by itself a complete final element, to

chapter 7

§ chapter 7

which all that precedes will stand in the relation of prior
element:

MMati-mukha

(Malatl-mukha> )-avalokana

[(Malatl-mukha> )-avalokana] -vihasta clumsy from gazing on
M&lati’s face

This is not an absolute rule. But it represents the first interpre-
tation that will occur to the reader’s mind. If therefore two or
more elements are to be added en bloc, i.e. ‘bracketed’, they
O must form a natural group: in other words, the first of the added
elements must group itself more naturally with what follows
than with what precedes, as in the following:

(s&yamtanmsn&na)-(savisesa:sitala) completely cool from
the evening bathe

Since it merely represents the normal rhythm of a Sanskrit com-
pound, it is not necessary to indicate by successive
bracketings the progressive expansion of the prior element of a
compound. Where, on the other hand, a subordinated group is
added as the final element (for the moment) of the compound
this may be most simply indicated by some sign for
subordination, such as w , above the relationship sign within the
group. The above thus becomes:

s2yamtana:sn5na-savisesa : sitala

Slightly more complex is the following:

pratyagra:s&yamtana!sn&na-savisesaisftaia completely cool
from the recent evening bathe

This is a compound built up in three stages:

pratyagra recent

pratyagra:s3yamtana:sn3na recent evening-bathe

pratyagra:s3yamtana:sn3na-savisesa:sitala

The first three words in this compound illustrate two points.
First, as remarked in Chapter 6, there is no restriction on the use
of karmadh&raya compounds as part of a longer compound,
provided that the finally completed compound is not in itself a
karmadharaya (the rule boils down to this: in general, if you can
avoid a karmadharaya simply by putting an inflexion on an ad-
jective, or on a compound fiinctioning as an adjective, do so).

Secondly, where two adjectives qualify the same substantive within
a compound, it is more likely that the second is in a closer rela-
tionship with the substantive and thus forms a subordinate unit
with it than that the two adjectives are linked in a co-ordinative
relationship. So in English ‘startled: old:woman’ means an old
woman who is startled, not a woman who is startled and old.

Like karmadharayas, dvandva compounds occur very frequently
as a subordinate part of a longer compound:

Rira;Sindhu-sambhedam avagdhya nagarlm eva pravisSvah
let us bathe at the confluence of the (rivers) Para and
Sindhu, and go into the city

aho sam3na:vayo;r0pa-ramanlyam sauhardam atrabhavatfnam
how delightful [for the similar age-and-looks:] for its equal-
ity in youth and looks is the friendship of you (young) ladies

Within a subordinate group a further subordinate (or ‘double-
bracketed’) group may sometimes be detected. This is even less
frequent than one-degree subordination. Subordination in
general is more frequent in bahuvrihi compounds (see Chapter
8) than in determinatives. Here is an example of such a
compound, one that can actually be analysed as including three
degrees of subordination. The point is that such compounds are
possible because the way the elements group together is natural
and immediately evident to anyone who knows Sanskrit.

virajat;katipaya: komala! danta! kutmah ? agra with (a few
(tender (tips of budlike teeth))) gleaming out

If you find any difficulty in grasping the logic of subordinate
groupings, remember the analogy with algebra, and ‘first solve
what is within brackets’— i.e. determine the meaning of words
linked by the sign “ before relating them to the rest of the
compound.

In theory, any word standing outside a compound may form a
grammatical relationship only with the compound as a whole,
not simply with some prior portion of it. In practice, in Classical
Sanskrit this rule is sometimes violated if the alternative of in-
corporating the extra word into the compound is inconvenient
or not sufficiently clear. Typically one may find that a word or
phrase in the genitive qualifies the first element or elements of a
following compound:

tasya kam>-onmattasya citra:vadha-vartt§presanena (please
me) by sending news of the [variegated death:] death by
torture of that love-crazed (one)

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Here the genitive -unmattasya qualifies citra:vadha not
-presanena.

The use of long compounds

A single compound inserted into a Sanskrit sentence may serve
the purpose of a whole clause or even of a separate sentence in
English. The following sentence:

itah pradesSd apakramya M3dhav>-apak3ram praty abhinivist J
bhav&mi I’ll withdraw from this place and become intent
upon the ruin of Madhava

may be augmented by a compound qualifying prades&t:

itoM&latl-vivaha-parikarma-satvarapratlh&ra'Sata-samkulat
pradesid apakramya etc. I’ll withdraw from this place,
(which is) crowded with hundreds of porters busy on
preparations for Milatl’s wedding, and work for Mad-
hava’s ruin

But the announcement of withdrawal in the word apakramya
occurs late in the sentence. We would therefore be more faithful
to one aspect of the original, the order of ideas, by translating:

This place is crowded with porters busy on preparations for
Malatfs wedding: I’ll withdraw and etc.

or even

Preparations for Mllatl’s wedding have brought hundreds of
porters flooding into here etc.

On the other hand, if we always adhere religiously to the order
of the original, this may involve us in destroying its structure,
and the latter may sometimes be the more important. This is the
dilemma of all translators faced with the more elaborate styles
of Sanskrit, and there is no general solution: each case must be
judged on its merits.

The construction of long compounds is exploited to good effect
in both literary and academic prose, making possible the han-
dling of a vast mass of detail without any obscuring of the main
thread of narrative or argument. Beginners in writing Sanskrit
prose, however, often misguidedly attempt large numbers of ex-
ceptionally long compounds. These are difficult to handle suc-
cessfully, and the translation of ordinary English prose offers lit-
tle scope for them. A practical limit to aim at is the compound
of three, four oi^ very occasionally, five members. Page after

page of elegant, perspicuous Sanskrit may be read containing no
compound longer than this.

93

gata

The past participle gata ‘gone to’ is often used at the end of a
compound to mean ‘[being] in’, without any sense of prior mo-
tion. Thus citra-gata nSrl ‘the woman in the picture’;
kara-tala-gatS >ksamala ‘the rosary in (his) hand’.

Sugingatprisada-gatena deven> ah am aryasya padamfilam
presitah His Majesty was in the Suganga Palace when he
sent me to Your Honour[’s feet]

(It would be wrong to translate this as ‘having gone to the
palace, His Majesty etc' For the latter sense one should rather
use the absolutive gatva.)

gata may also be translated by ‘referring to, about’, or it may
represent the locative used with verbs of feeling: putragatah
snehah ‘affection towards a son, love of a son’.

Vocabulary

atyanta excessive, extreme
atyShitam calamity
atdarsanam lack of sight, not
seeing

Avalokita pr. n.
arvinayah lack of breeding,
discourtesy

astram missile, weapon
a:sthane not in place, inappro-
priate

Sbharanam ornament
iryah Your Honour; voc. sir
aharanam (act of) fetching
udvigna distressed
Urvasi pr. n.
rtvij (rtvik) m. priest
ausadham medicine
katha story; talk, speaking
ksira-vrksah fig-tree
ksudra mean, common, low

gStram limb
ghatakah executioner
Candraguptah pr. n.
cira long (of time)-, ciram for
a long time
cfirnam powder
ch§ya shade
titah (one’s own) father
tiram bank

darbhah (and pi.) a type of
(sacrificial) grass
dflre far away

devi goddess; (the) Queen, Her
(/Your) Majesty
nirvrta content, happy
purusah man

pflrva previous; in karmadba-
raya previously, before, once,
already

prakarah manner, way

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pratik&rah remedy
prabhSvah power
bhagavati Her Reverence
bhayam fear, danger
bhavati you (polite form of
address to woman)
madanah (sexual) love
madan>-6dy3nam park of
(temple to the god of) Love
misra mixed
O yatnah effort
^1 yoga-cfirnam magic powder
f&ksasah pr. n.

RamSyanam name of an epic
poem

vanij (vanik) m. businessman,
trader

vatsala affectionate, loving
vadhya condemned to death
vibhagah part, portion
vivSdah disagreement, dispute

vrksah tree
vedanS ache, pain
vedi (sacrificial) altar
vaidyah doctor
vyakta evident, clear; vyaktam
clearly

sariram body
siras n. head

samstaranam (act of) strewing
sakhf [female] ffiend
samidh f. firewood
sarasi lake
sahya bearable
Sita pr. n.
suhrd m. ffiend
saujanyam kindness
snehah affection, love
sparsah touch
sva pron. adj. (one’s) own
svdgatam (lit. ‘well come’)
welcome to ( dat .)

anu + grah (IX anugrhnSti) favour

apa + hr (I apaharati) carry off

ava + tf (I avatarati) descend; caus. (avatSrayati) remove

a + sri (I asrayati/asrayate) resort to (acc.)

upa + ram (I uparamate) cease, die

upa + hr (I upaharati) offer

kath (X kathayati) say, tell, relate

kip (I kalpate) be suitable; cans, (kalpayad) arrange, prepare

kmd (I ksodari p.p. ksunna) trample, tread

drs cans, (darsayati) show

dhr cans. (dMrayati) hold, carry, wear

ni + yuj (VII niyunkte) engage (someone) upon (loc.)

pS (I pibati) drink; caus. (pSyayati) make to drink

prati + pal (X pratipSlayad) wait for

prati + budh cans, (pradbodhayad) wake (someone)

prad + i cans, (pratyiyayad) make confident

pra + yuj (VH prayunkte) employ

pra + stha (I pratist hate) set out

pra + is cans, (presayati) despatch, send

lajj (VI lajjate) be embarrassed; caus. (lajjayati) embarrass

vi + kri (IX vikrinlte) sell to (loc.)

vi + dnt (X vidntayati) consider, think of

vi + dru (I vidravati) run away; caus. (vidrivayati) disperse,
chase away

vi + dha (ID vidadhad) arrange, manage

vi + yuj (VH viyunkte) disjoin, deprive of ( instr .)

vrdh (I vardhate) grow; caus. (vardhayati) increase

aye ah! used to express a present intention,

tena hi therefore and may be represented by just in

tSvat (enclitic, lit. meanwhile) English (as in I’ll just buy a
and y3vat (usually first word, newspaper)
lit. during which time) are

Exercise 7a ari r i g lrotE ra q si R n r i

i? i angt th: ix i

n*ra?er mi sinf aiflr w i$i eFsarafir nidciMdU-yitoiH.

ns i ita #ni id i ri

^ roi aig i r i wPg ’ rarc rf’ n mi <«nirti *rvMd*i}d
traq ra ra r? i srfr ft# ft Tiftm

R3 I 3lft RM(#llfg<i RX I dWRwi^<J)«i«UU||if

aqpifin r«*i rafapnreftftnnn ’rat rarra ?fw r$i asgn

a*nflT’ZRsn^ aai; rv»i raft 4»miRwHi) ar R4 1

wrfd r ^ i rarars iramrraft $ra*ra

^siyrftarasraft ir« ii

Exercise 7b i I am Atreyl. z You increase my curiosity.
3 This is the bank-of-the-lake. 4 I will just wait for these (girls)
[having resorted to:] in the shade. 5 This is a road trodden* by
common*people. 6 Clearly these [».] too were sold to us by a
trader employed-by-Canakya. 7 Oh, (you) have shown
love*for*(your)*friend. 8 The danger is at (your) head, the rem-
edyforit far away. 9 Dear [use sakhi] Madayantika, welcome.
You [bhavatl] have favoured ourhouse. 10 It is this dispute
which makes me confident. 11 The two of us set out

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[for-the • fetching- of:] to • fetch- firewood, 12 Why did you two
ladies check me? 13 That is well* managed on the
occasion*of’the*entry’of*Kalahamsaka*and*Makaranda. 14
What, (was) this ornament once**wom by (my) father? 15 I
have in fact engaged her-dear -friend Buddharaksita on the mat-
ter [tatra]. 1 6 Are these the two-men-in-the-Rkmayana-story?
17 This dear friend Siddharthaka chased the executioners away
and carried me off from the [place*of*the*condemned:] execution
ground. 18 Quite different [anya] is this [un* trodden:] unhack-
neyed way*of-speaking by [use gen.] Her Reverence. 19 This
must be [use khalu] the powerof-the-V 5 runa-weapons-em-
ployed*by*Prince*Lava. 20 That doctor indeed was made to
drink the same medicine, and at once died. [Express at once by
linking the two verbs with ca . . . ca.]

Paradigms: Consonant stems in an (rSjan, atm an, naman)

Changeable consonant stems

Indo-European vowel gradation was based on the position of
the accent: guna or vrddhi occurred in an accented syllable, zero
grade in an unaccented syllable. From Vedic texts, in which the
ancient accentuation is preserved, we know that this distinction
is broadly true of Sanskrit itself. It applies to gradations of the
root not only in derivative formations (from i ‘go’, eti ‘he goes’,
ita ‘gone’, ayanam ‘path’) but also within the inflexion of a sin-
gle tense: e.g. emi ‘I go’, imah ‘we go’. In nominal inflexion we
should expect the root to undergo similar changes, but only the
traces of such a system remain, even in Vedic. An interesting ex-
ample, mentioned in Chapter 5 , is the infinitive (netum ‘to lead’)
in comparison with the absolutive (nltv£ ‘after leading’): in ori-
gin these are the accusative and instrumental singular respec-
tively of an obsolete verbal action noun. Similarly, in Vedic,
horn ksam ‘earth’ occur nominative plural ks£mah and ablative
singular ksmah. But most nouns have standardised one grade of
the root throughout their inflexion. For instance, from vac (or
uc) ‘speak’ the noun vie ‘speech’ has standardised vrddhi grade
throughout (cf. Latin vdx, v6cis). So the nominative plural is
v§cah and the ablative singular v3cah, with no distinction of
grade despite the fact that the shift of accent is preserved. And
since the ancient system of accents was lost early in the Classical
period and is not marked in Classical texts, it is reasonable to
say that in Classical Sanskrit the ablative and genitive singula^
and the nominative, vocative and accusative plural of vac are
identical in form.

§ chapter 8

Nevertheless vowel gradation remains an important feature of
nominal inflexion, for although gradation of the root is almost
entirely lost, gradation of the suffix is preserved in many types
of declension. In this chapter attention is confined to the de-
clension of stems ending in the suffix an. [Latin has a corre-
sponding declension, but has standardised the strong grade in
one type (serm6, serm6nis) and a weaker grade in another
(n6men, nOminis).]

Strong cases of the noun (those in which the accent stood origi-
nally not on the termination but on the stem) are nominative,
vocative and accusative singular; nominative, vocative and accu-
O sative dual, and nominative and vocative (not accusative) plural
QO for the masculine; and nominative, vocative and accusative plu-
ral only for the neuter. Feminines hardly occur; the feminine of
changeable stems being formed by the addition of the suffix I.
The other cases are the weak cases. Of these, however; there is a
subdivision in many types of declension between ‘weakest’ and
‘middle’ cases. The weakest cases are those whose termination
begins with a vowel (-ah, -i, etc.); the middle cases are those
whose termination begins with a consonant (-bhih, -su, etc.) and
also the nominative, vocative and accusative neuter singular;
which has no termination.

Stems in an, such as raj an ‘king’ naman ‘name’, are in fact
among those which distinguish these three grades, strong, middle
and weakest. Here the difference between middle and weakest is
straightforward, and historically easily explained. The suffix an
reduces to n in the weak grade, and this n remains before a
vowel but appears as a (representing *n ‘syllabic «’) in the mid-
dle cases: so namna instrumental singular of naman, but
namabhib (for *ndmnbhib) instrumental plural. The n is assimi-
lated where appropriate to the class of the preceding consonant:
so rajiia ‘by the king’.

Except in the vocative singular the strong stem appears not in
the guna grade an but in the vrddhi grade an: rajanau ‘the two
kings’. In the nominative singular masculine the final n is lost:
raja (cf. Latin sermd).

In the locative singular and in the nominative, vocative and ac-
cusative dual neuter; an may optionally replace n: rajni or
rajani ‘in the king’, namni or namanl ‘the two names’. In stems
ending in -man or -van preceded by a consonant, man/van nec-
essarily replaces mnlvn (for ease of pronunciation) in all the
weakest cases: so atmana, karmana.

An important practical point about nouns with changeable fTT
stems (and some consolation for the greater difficulties of in- '
flexion) is that in the masculine plural they distinguish the nom-
inative from the accuative. suhrdah (as well as being ablative
and genitive singular) may be either nominative or accusative
plural; r3)3nah can only be nominative (or vocative)— and
r&jSnal^ if plural, can only be accusative.

Exocentric compounds: bahuvrihi

If a nominal compound functions neither as an aggregate in some
sense of its parts (co-ordinative) nor as a hyponym, ‘special in- q
stance’, of one of its parts (determinative— in Classical Sanskrit QQ
that part is, in fact, always the final element, if we except rari-
ties like drstatpQrva), then it must function as the qualifier of
some substantival notion outside itself, whether the latter is ex-
pressed or left unexpressed. For this reason the term ‘exocentric’
is used to describe the third main class of nominal compounds.

The class is extremely various: in principle, any meaningful col-
location of words may be isolated and used as a descriptive tag.

This is, in fact, our practice in English: we talk of a ne’er-do-well
husband, ban-the-bomb marchers, the two-car family. The
English practice helps to explain the way in which such com-
pounds may have arisen in the Indo-European period, namely as
survivals of an earlier stage of the language in which nouns had
lacked inflexion, and relationships could be expressed by simple
juxtaposition, much as in English: to give an example based on
Sanskrit, asva mukha ‘horse’s face’. When a system of inflexions
arose, such collocations, where used with their primary value,
could easily be superseded: so asvasya mukham. Therefore com-
pounds with determinative sense survived only if well estab-
lished or of specialised meaning. Used, on the other hand, with
exocentric value, asvamukha ‘horse face’ could not be replaced
by two inflected words and would thus survive as an adjective:
asvamukhah ‘the horse-faced (man)’.

There are very few instances of exocentric compounds in
Sanskrit simply based on some random phrase (one example
would be ahampQrva ‘wanting to be first’ based on the phrase
aham purvah ‘I’m first!’). The commonest type is that exempli-
fied in the preceding paragraph, the compound based on two
nouns standing in determinative relationship. This is termed
in Sanskrit a bahuvrihi compound (literally ‘much-riced’, an
example of the class). In the system of punctuation here

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100

adopted, exocentric value is denoted by an underscore, and this
is placed beneath the mark of the relationship between the ele-
ments. So based on the dependent determinative asva-mukham
‘horse’s face’ is the exocentric compound asva=mukha ‘horse-
faced’. In fact, however the vast majority of bahuvrihis are
based on descriptive (karmadblraya) relationship. Examples are
ugraimukha ‘grim-faced’, triislrsa ‘three-headed’, krsnaivarna
‘black-coloured’.

In general, as these examples indicate, the type of compound in
English which represents the bahuvrlhi most closely is that
formed with the possessive suffix ‘-ed\ Truly parallel English
bahuvrihis are few, but a useful one to remember is ‘bareifoot’.
Like the determinative ‘tooth-brush’, it illustrates the fact that
stem forms do not distinguish singular from plural: a bare-foot
man is one whose feet are bare.

All bahuvrihis are essentially adjectival. The compound on
which a bahuvrlhi is based is reduced to a stem form, and then
inflected to agree with a substantive expressed or understood.
The stem form must in the first place be a masculine stem form.
Thus a feminine substantive in 3 at the end of a bahuvrlhi has its
final vowel reduced to short a: e.g. from svalp>:eccha ‘small de-
sire’, svalp>;eccha ‘having small desire’. But although in theory
almost any noun might be used at the end of a bahuvrlhi, in
practice restraint is observed so as to avoid awkward termina-
tions. For instance, a polysyllabic feminine in I is hardly to
be found at the end of a bahuvrlhi (cf. Chapter io).
Among bahuvrihis ending in consonants, a notable type (paral-
leled in Greek) is that formed from neuters in -as: e.g. from
sutmanas ‘good mind’, suynanas ‘well-disposed’, nom. sg. m. or
f. suxmanah (cf. Gk. eumenes).

The adjective mahant ‘great’ (Chapter io) when used as the first
member of a karmadh&raya or bahuvrlhi compound takes the
form mah£: mah&purusah ‘great man’, mah^xbala ‘of great
strength’.

The term bahuvrlhi is often translated ‘possessive compound’,
and this certainly reflects the prevailing sense of these com-
pounds in Sanskrit. In perhaps nine cases out of ten the sense
can be represented by putting the word ‘having’ before the de-
terminative meaning of the compound: ‘having three heads’ and
so forth. However the sophisticated exploitation of
bahuvrihis is a striking feature of Classical Sanskrit, and the
simple notion of ‘possession’ can be unhelpful or positively mis-
leading in their interpretation, particularly in the many instances

where a past participle forms the first element in the compound.
sSanskrit commentators have standardised a more adequate
Analysis by means of a relative clause, the full neatness and use-
fulness of which will be more obvious later when the construc-
tion of Sanskrit relative clauses is explained (cf. Chapter n, p.
.148). For the present, the analysis is introduced in a translated
version. Let us begin by labelling the first element in the com-
pound A and the second element B. The compound then means

101

of/by/in etc. whom/which | B (sg./duJpl.) | is/are

' „ /

or simply whose

A

(or of etc. A)

By this analysis the compounds already encountered might be-
come ‘whose face is grim’, ‘whose heads are three’, ‘of which the
colour is black’, ‘whose feet are bare’, ‘whose desires are few’,
*whose disposition is good’. Where there is dependent determi-
native relationship, a preposition or ‘apostrophe s’ needs to be
attached to A: ‘whose face is a horse’s’, ‘of whom there is the
face of a horse’. As in the last example, the formula may be var-
ied by substituting ‘there is/there are’. This works very well for
the normal possessive bahuvrihis— ‘of whom there are three
heads’ etc.— but is not always appropriate elsewhere: the
Sanskrit version of the formula usefully blurs this distinction.

Bahuvrihis based on various special types of karmadhirayas
occur. The prefixes su and dus are perhaps even commoner in
bahuvrihis than in simple karmadh^rayas. suynanas has been
mentioned; similarly, duryitman ‘evil-natured’. The negative pre-
fix a is probably rather less common in bahuvrihi than in
karmadharaya sense (the alternative being the use of the prefix
nis— see Chapter 9): examples are a;nimitta ‘for which there is
no cause’ and a;visrama ‘from which there is no respite, cease-
less’. An example of sa converted from karmadharaya to
bahuvrihi sense is found in saipinda ‘having the ancestral offer-
ing in common’, but sa usually nas a different sense in exocen-
tric compounds (see Chapter 9).

The prefixes su (‘easily’) and dus (‘with difficulty’) are used with
verbal action nouns to give a ‘gerundive’ sense: e.g. duryaya ‘dif-
ficult to conquer’, suibodha ‘easy to understand’. The noun is
normally in guna grade, even in the case of a medial a: thus
suilabha ‘easily got’, dur;labha ‘hard to get’, even though labhah
does not occur as an independent word, the form being labhah
‘acquisition’.

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Corresponding to the karmadhiraya of comparison is a
bahuvrlhi in which the same elements appear in reverse order:
vadana:pankajam ‘the lotus of (her) face’, but pankaja;vadan&
‘the lotus-faced (girl)’. (This latter was classed by critics as sim-
ile rather than as metaphor.)

The first element of the bahuvrlhi may be an adverb instead of
an adjective. Examples are sarvatoimukha ‘[whose face is in all
directions:] facing all ways’, and tath&ividha or evamgvidha
(from vidhia ‘form, sort’) ‘[whose sort is thus:] of such a kind’.

When the first element of the bahuvrlhi is a past participle, an
ambiguity exists which makes correct analysis important.
drst>;artha ‘whose purpose is seen, having a visible purpose’ is
easily understood, drstajkasta, however, is used to mean not
‘whose calamity is seen’ but ‘by whom calamity has been seen’,
i.e. ‘(one) who has experienced calamity’. Similarly, krtaisrama
means ‘by whom exertions have been made’, vidita;vartta ‘by
whom news has been learnt’. A past participle like datta ‘given’
introduces a further ambiguity: datt>i&dara may mean either ‘by
whom respect is given’ or ‘to whom respect is given’.

Besides the mainly literal translations mentioned above, the use
of bahuvrlhis may correspond to various kinds of idiom in
English.

The ‘having’ of the ‘possessive’ translation may be replaced by a
preposition such as ‘of’ or ‘with’, as in:

ramaniyaidarsanah (a man) of attractive appearance

bahuisvara (a word) of many syllables

2laksyaidanta:mukulah ainimitta:hasaih (children) with
their buds of teeth just visible through causeless chuckles

ek>;anvayo >yam asmSkam he is of one family with us

In apposition to the subject, a bahuvrlhi may often be translated
by an absolute phrase in English:

ubhe vismayad urasi nihita:haste parasparam ilokayatah the
two (girls) look at each other in astonishment, their hands
placed on their breasts

The addition of api results in a concessive clause:

avasitaiprafijnh:bharo >pi Vrsal>-apeksay3 sastram dharayami
[though one by whom the burden of the promise has been
fulfilled, through regard for Vrsala I bear the sword:]

though I have discharged the burden of my promise, I bear
the sword (of office) out of regard for Vrsala

▼an>iauikaso >pi vayam Ioka-jn3 eva though our home is the
forest, we do know the world

The difference between Sanskrit and English idiom is most strik-
ingly illustrated in the many sentences in which a bahuvrihi
forms the predicate to a nominal sentence. The way of translat-
ing these will vary, but as a general rule the most naturally cor-
responding English sentence will make the final element of the
bahuvrihi into the subject, and the subject of the Sanskrit into a
word dependent on it:

disty3 jlvita;vats3 >smi thank God my children are alive

mrga-pracara-sfidta;svapadam aranyam the forest is one-in-
which-the-beasts-are-indicated-by-the-movements-of-the
deer:] the game in the forest has been tracked by the move-
ments of the deer

nanv iyam samnihitaivetr^asan » aiva dv&raprakos tha-sSld
[why, this hall of the entrance-court is in fact one-in-
which-a-seat-of-cane-is-present:] why, there is already a
canework couch here in the hall of the forecourt

In questions the neuter singular interrogative kim may be used
as a stem form:

kim;vy3paro bhagavan Miricah? [the revered son of Marici
is one whose occupation is what?:] how is the revered son
of Marlci occupied ?

tesam Dasarath>-atmaj3n3m kiminSmadheylny apatySni?
what are the names of the offspring of those sons of
Dasaratha?

Where a past participle is used, a simple English perfect may be
the obvious translation:

praty&panna;cetano vayasyah [(my) friend is one-by-whom-
consciousness-is-regained:] my friend has regained con-
sciousness

labdh>iavak£& me manorathah [my desires are ones-for-
which-scope-has-been-obtained:] I have won the scope for
my desires

It has already been pointed out that karmadharayas are not
freely formed as complete compounds. One reason for this will

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104

now be dear; namely the ambiguities of interpretation which
would arise: hataputtah is not used in the sense of ‘a slain son’,’
because it is needed in the sense of ‘(he) whose son is slain’ or
‘(he) who has slain a son’. Conversely, although bahuvrlhis as :
the earlier part of some longer compound are not impossible,
they are not particularly common in simple prose style. The rule
of thumb in translating from Safiskrit is therefore: expect hata-
putra as a complete word to be a bahuvrihi, but as a stem form
to be a karmadharaya— thus hata:putradarsanam ‘the sight of
(his) slain son [/sons]’.

‘Called’

To express the idiom ‘a man called Devadatta’ the word n3man
may be used in either of two ways: adverbially in the accusative,
e.g. nSma ‘by name’:

Devadatto nSma purusah a man, Devadatta by name
or else at the end of a bahuvrihi compound (feminine in I):

Devadattain&ma purusah a man whose name is Devadatta

MadayantikSinamnl kanyaka a girl called Madayantika

atman

This is a masculine substantive meaning ‘self’. It is also used, in
the masculine singular, as a reflexive pronoun for all three num-
bers, genders and persons:

atmanam prasamsatha you are praising [the self:] yourselves

atmany esa dosam na pasyati she sees no fault in herself

In the genitive, atmanah, it is thus a frequent alternative to the
reflexive adjective sva:

atmano grham idanim pravisami I’ll now enter my own house

Often a phrase qualifies atman which in English would qualify
the subject:

pura kila . . . Slta:devl praptaiprasava-vedanam atmanam
ati:duhkha-samvegad Ganga-pravahe niksiptavatl Once,
it seems, Queen Slta, when the pangs of childbirth were
upon her, cast herself in the extremity of her suffering into
the Ganges’ stream ‘

Neither atman nor sva is restricted to referring to the nominative
subject: they may refer to any appropriate substantive or

pronoun in the vicinity: hence a phrase such as asya sva:bhrtyah
■this man’s own servant’. In the following example, the first sva '
refers to amusya, the second to mahl-padh:

sva:bhavan>-opanayanam apy amusya svam£h&tmya-prak£
saMya mahl-patir anvamamsta and [for the displaying
of:] to display his generosity, the king permitted [the carry-
ing to his own home of that one:] him to be carried to his
own home

svayam

The stem sva provides an indeclinable form svayam. This repre-
sents the notions ‘personally’ or ‘of one’s own accord’ (the in- I |jj

strumental atmanS is sometimes used in the same way). It may

therefore correspond to the emphatic use of the English reflex-
ive: svayam dgacchad ‘he is coming himself (/in person)’. In com-
bination with a past participle an agentive sense is uppermost:
svayam adhigata ‘acquired by oneself’.

Predicative accusatives

In sentences such as ‘he likes his curry hot’, ‘they drink their
martinis dry’ much of the burden of statement is carried by an
adjective (‘hot’, ‘dry’) syntactically dependent upon a subordi-
nate element (‘curry’, ‘martinis’) in a sentence that might already
appear to be structurally complete. Such an adjective is ‘pred-
icative’ in rather the same way as is the adjectival complement
of a nominal sentence: the sentences are, in fact, closely similar
in meaning to ‘the curry he likes is hof, ‘the martinis they drink
are dry'. In Sanskrit, too, the object of a verb may be qualified
by such a predicate. The verb avagam ‘understand, perceive,
etc' may be used to illustrate possible equivalents of the con-
struction in English:

murkham tv&m avagacch&mi

(a) I think you a fool

(b) I perceive you to be a fool

(c) I recognise you as a fool (/for a fool)

(d) I realise that you are a fool

There is no ‘accusative and infinitive’ construction of the Latin
kind in Sanskrit, but an ‘accusative and accusative’ construction
as illustrated by the above is not uncommon and may be an al-
ternative to the use of an ‘iti clause’. Thus the above might also

chapter 8

chapter 8

106

have been expressed by mfirkhas tvam ity avagacchami.

tat lam khalv idSnlm purnam Stmano manoratham n> abhi-
nand&mi? {so do’ I not* now rejoice in my own desire (as)
fulfilled:] may I not now rejoice that my desire is fulfilled?

Here again, pOrnam atmano manoratham might conceivably be
replaced by pQrno me manoratha iti.

Particularly noteworthy is the predicative use with a verb such as
is ‘want’ of a present participle (Chapter io):

bhadra BMsvaraka, na mam durl~bhavantam 1 icchati kum-
3rah good Bhasvaraka, His Highness does not want me
[being far away:] to be far away

Verbal action nouns in ana

The suffix ana added to the verbal root (normally strengthened to
guna grade) is sometimes used to form nouns with adjectival or
agentive force: thus from subh ‘shine’, sobhana ‘brilliant’; from
nand ‘rejoice’, nandana ‘gladdening’. But its far more frequent
function is to provide neuter action nouns. So from drs ‘see’,
darsanam ‘(act of) seeing’; from k + gam ‘come’, Sgamanam ‘(act
of) coming, arrival’. There is thus an overlap of meaning with the
masculine action nouns in a already described, and sometimes
both formations are found from the same root in much the same
sense, e.g. uparodhahor uparodhanam ‘(act of) blocking’. A more
concrete meaning is also not uncommon with this formation:
bhojanam, from bhuj ‘enjoy, eat’, means ‘thing eaten, food’ more
often than it means ‘act of eating’; vacanam usually means ‘thing
spoken, word’ rather than ‘act of speaking’ (cf. in English the two
senses of the word ‘utterance’ and the frequent ambiguity of
words ending in ‘-ation’, so that, for instance, ‘formation’ can
equally well mean ‘act of forming’ and ‘thing formed’).

The first a of the suffix coalesces with the vowel of roots ending
in k: sth&nam ‘place’, jn3nam ‘knowledge’, etc. The roots labh
and rabh insert a nasal: vipralambhanam ‘deception’.
Lengthening of a medial a is little found, except to some extent
in distinguishing a causative significance: maranam ‘dying’,
maranam ‘killing’. More generally, however (and especially in
later Sanskrit), derivative stems both causative and denominative
make use of a related feminine suffix ana: g an and ‘counting’,
prarthanl ‘solicitation’, vijn&pana ‘requesting’.

' For die tilde ~ in compounds of kr and bhtt see Chapter iz.

samvrtta

m m

The past participle of samvrt ‘happen’ is frequently used to
express the ‘change of state’ equivalent (in past time) of a nominal
sentence. It thus represents English ‘became’ or ‘has become’.

eso >smi kirya-vasdd Ayodhyakas taddnlm tanas ca samvrttah
behold, through (theatrical) need I have become (/turned
into) an inhabitant of Ayodhya and a man of the period

Often jata, the past participle of jan ‘be born, arise’, is used in
the same way:

nihsaha >si jata you \f.\ have become exhausted

‘Palace’, ‘temple’

Sanskrit usually designates types of buildings more analytically
than English. There is no single word that exclusively denotes
either the residence of a king or the place where a god is wor-
shipped. Therefore the notion ‘palace’ may be represented by an
indefinite number of phrases meaning ‘king’s house’, e.g. nrpa-
bhavanam. (The word prasadah normally denotes a fine building
and may therefore be used by itself to mean ‘palace’ if the
context makes it plain who the owner is.) Similarly, ‘temple’
is expressed by the phrase ‘house of god’, e.g. deva-kulam.
Where a specific deity is named, the inclusion of a word such as
devah or devata is, of course, not necessary: $iv>-3yatanain ‘tem-
ple of Siva’.

Vocabulary

anguriyaka m./rt. ring
(for finger)

ati:bibhatsa extremely
repulsive, foul
atrabhavati this lady
anuktila favourable
anvayah succession, lineage,
family

aparadhah offence
apavSrita hidden
abhiyukta diligent
aranyam forest

arthah meaning, matter;

purpose, object
avasSnam termination, end,
conclusion

avasita terminated, over
3tman m. self
amodah scent
ayatanam abode
asakta fastened, fixed, occupied
autsukyam eagerness
kataka mJn. (royal) camp
karman n. deed, work

chapter 8

kaslya astringent, sharp
(of scent)

KSmardevah the god of Love
kusumam flower
kesaram hair, filament
kautukam curiosity
krauryam cruelty
gamanam going
gun ah merit, quality, worth
caryS movement, riding
(in vehicle)

cittam thought, mind
japyam (muttered) prayer
tadrsa (f. i) (of) such (a kind)
daksinapathah southern region
(of India), the Deccan
Daruvarman m., pr. n.
divasah day
duribodha difficult to
understand

dur:vipakah cruel turn
(of fortune)

daivam fate, chance, fomme
dosah fault, inconvenience
dharmah religious law, duty,
piety

nSmadheyam appellation, name
nSman n. name
nrsamsa injurious; m. monster
Padmapuram name of a city
parinamah evolution, outcome
parinirvanam complete
extinction

parivrta surrounded, having a
retinue

parisad f. assembly, audience

parita encompassed, overcome
padapah tree
pundarikam lotus
pratigrahah present (to a
brahmin from a king)
prabandhah (literary) work
bahumanah respect for (loc.)
manas n. mind
manda sluggish, slack
mahant (stem form in
compound maha) great
mukham face

mudra authorising seal/stamp,
‘pass’

rathah chariot
raj an m. king
vatsah dear child
vrttantah news; event, scene
(of activity)
vesman n. residence
vaikhanasah hermit, anchorite
vaitalikah royal bard
vaimanasyam despondency
vairam hostility
vyanjanam sign, insignia,
disguise

sanka suspicion, fear
sapah curse
sltala cool
-sad ifc. dweller (in)
sadrsa (f. t) similar; suitable,
worthy

samdhya twilight, evening
siddha achieved
sundara (f. 1) beautiful
stambhah pillar

ahk (X ankayati) brand, stamp

adhi + gam (I adhigacchad) find; realise, perceive

anu + kamp (I anukampate) sympathise with, take pity on

abhi + as (IV abhyasyati) practise; p.p. abhyasta familiar (to one
through practice)

ava + nam (I avanamati, p.p. avanata) bow down, bend down
at + svas (II ucchvasiti) bloom, blossom
apa + sru (V upasrnoti) hear of, learn of
jan cans, (janayati) beget, produce, arouse
nis + dis (VI nirdisati) designate, specify
nis + kram (I niskr3mati) go out of ( abl .)
pari + Iks (I pariksate) examine, scrutinise
pari + at (I paryatati) wander about
prati + vas (I prativasati) dwell, live (in)
prati + abhi + jn3 (IX pratyabhij3n3ti) recognise
bandh (IX badhnSti, p.p. baddha) bind, fix; enter into (friendship or
hate)

v3s (X vasayati) perfume

vid (II vetti, p.p. vidita) know, learn, discover

sam + vrt (I sam vartate) happen, become (see chapter text )

109

adhastSt + gen. beneath
itah from here; over here
lam tu (first in sentence ) but
tads then, at that time
nanu why! well!

bho bhoh ho there!
svayam (emphatic pron.) myself
etc., personally
hanta ah! alas!
hi ( enclitic ) for (as con].)

Exercise 8a ipr fogr*# To: r i aaf r i srffcr

^l*T R I qvw $?T: (a«oiq: IXI

Tag mi

4»da» i fa«d»wfa «4i sfr-wummmyifdi m vt

JTPW: : m4<iRi 141 Tpf iJ-HsWelrfllteHIttilfa Rl cpHK

qiwTRgaWt r © i (*wmw<im«anira^ ^ Rti

jfTti R? I a^flPiPTri) Sft TCT: rxi

tignra t iyviRr RmT H&Ubui : 4)<ndimiffi
3ajffiqranpgrir 3rarrcr : r4i 3i<j»<»mPiBibei

Tnranftnrarfti roi aroftPrafoit fas*: R 41 ¥i$wr<HW¥f*n4y
n-4l«j<w) iRu ^ prwt afir ir^ii

chapter 8

Exercise 8b i This is a present from the king. 2 I went,
my-curiosity-aroused-by-Avalokita, to the temple-of-Kamadeva.
3 This signet ring is stamped-with-the-minister’s-name. 4 We do
not find a work with-the-qualities-specified-by-the-audience.

5 Why, you [pi.] too are exhausted by this work-of-piety.

6 ‘See, I [m.\ have become K&mandaki.’ ‘And I Avalokita.’

7 Vrsala, these inconveniences happen to [bhG + gen.] kings
(who are) themselves not-diligent. 8 Then why are you standing
[sthita] with-the-lotus-of-your-face-bent-down? 9 For there lives
a dear-friend [of me:] of mine, [having-the-disguise-of:] dis-
guised-as-a-royal-bard, called Stanakalasa. 10 Did (my) friend
[m\ learn her-family-and-name? 11 Dearest, even the cruelty
practised [prayuktaj by me upon you has come [ use samvrt]
to-have-a-favourable-outcome. So now I want [myself recog-
nised:] to be recognised by you. 12 Though my mind-is- con-
cemed- with- [gata] -UrvasI, I have the same respect for Her
Majesty. 13 But we are .forest-dwellers, to-whom-riding-in-a-
chariot-is-un-familiar. 14 So let us (both) just sit beneath this
very kancan&ra-tree, [by-which-is-perfumed:] which-perfumes-
the-garden-with-a-sharp-cool-scent-from-the-filaments-of-blos-
somed-flowers.

Translate the following as nominal sentences with bahuvrlhis
for predicate:

15 She has learnt-the-news-of-SM. 16 Oh, His Majesty’s
mind-is-occupied-with-other-(things). 17 What-is-the-name-of
this vow of Her Majesty’s? 18 And that curse [has-as-its-con-
clusion:] is ended-by-the-sight-of-the-ring. 19 Though (he is)
overcome-with-despondency, the-sight-of His Majesty is-pleas-
ant [priya].

Paradigms: suci, mrdu; dhanavant; present atmanepada of nl

Stems in short / and short u

Substantives in i and u occur in all three genders, corresponding
in inflexion to the adjectives suci and mrdu. In these stems,
however a fair number of alternative forms are possible.

i For clarity, the distinctively feminine endings yai/yah/yam,
vai/vah/v&m of the singular have been listed in the paradigms.
These endings have really spread by analogy from the I declen-
sion, and it is not uncommon for feminines in the dative, ablative,
genitive and locative singula^ whether adjective or substantive, to
decline like the masculine (reverting, in other words, to their
original inflexion): so tan-matau or tan-matyim ‘in his opinion’.

z The special neuter forms with infix n (sg. ne/nah/ni; du. noh)
are optional in adjectives but not in substantives. Therefore
neuter adjectives may be declined like the masculine in all cases
but the nominative, vocative and accusative: sucino v&rinah or
sucer varinah (but not *vareh) ‘from the clean water’.

3 The vocative singular of neuters may take guna like the*
masculine-feminine: van or vare, madhu or madho.

4 Adjectives in u may also form their feminine by adding the
suffix I: laghu f. or laghvi f. ‘light’. (Feminines in lengthened 0
are also occasionally found.)

Substantives in i occur freely at the end of bahuvrihi com-
pounds: so from buddhi f. ‘intelligence’, mugdha:buddheh ‘(this
is the argument) of a simple-minded (person)’— a terse comment
on another scholar’s views.

Stems in vant and mant

Corresponding in sense to English compounds such as ‘white-
winged’, formed with the possessive suffix ‘-ed’, are bahuvrlhis
such as sitaipaksa ‘of whom there are white wings’, formed
without any suffix. The English suffix may also be added to a
single word: so ‘winged’, in the sense of ‘possessing wings’. In
these latter circumstances Sanskrit, like English, must make use
of a suffix. One of the most widely used is the suffix vant: so
paksavant ‘of whom there are wings, winged’. It combines very
freefy with stems which either end in a stop, m, a or i or have
m, a or i as their penultimate sound. Care should be exercised
in attaching it to a consonant stem, since it normally but not al-
ways follows the rules of internal sandhi (e g. payasvant ‘juicy’
but sragvant ‘garlanded’).

The suffix mant (also with internal sandhi) normally replaces
vant after stems ending in i, I, u, u, r, o and is, us, and
sometimes after stops: dhlmant ‘having wit, wise’; Garutmant
‘[the Winged One:] the divine bird Garuda’.

The inflexion of these stems is straightforward: the strong stem
ends in ant, the weak in at; the feminine ends in atl; and the
nominative singular masculine in 3n. In forming compounds the
stem form is at.

Atmanepada

The forms of the present indicative so far learnt are those of the
active voice or parasmaipada (‘word for another’). But in
Sanskrit, finite tenses (and the participles attached to them)
show a second set of forms, those of the Stmanepada (‘word for
oneself’). The distinction is not made in such nominal forma-
tions as the past participle, absolutive, etc. The atmanepada
corresponds to the middle voice of Greek, and its underlying im-
plication is that the action or state expressed by the verb affects
the subject. Thus yajati ‘sacrifices’ is used of the officiating priest
(or in earlier times of the Fire God who carries the oblation),
while yajate ‘sacrifices’ is used of the one for whose benefit the
sacrifice is being made. But except in a few instances like this,
the underlying implication is so blurred that it is not worth pur-
suing. It must rather be taken as a fact of the language that some
verbs are found only in the parasmaipada, a few only in the
atmanepada, and some show both sets of forms with little evi-
dent distinction of meaning. (Sometimes there are differences
within a single verb, for example between atmanepada in the

present system and parasmaipada in the perfect.) The form of [TIT
the present indicative quoted in the vocabulary will show * J
whether a verb is to be inflected in the parasmaipada (termina-
tion ti) or the atmanepada (termination te).

vartate

It is, however; worth noting that verbs regularly conjugated in
the atmanepada are more usually intransitive in sense. One im-
portant such verb is vrt (I vartate), literally ‘turn, revolve’ (‘turn’
in transitive sense is expressed by the causative vartayati). It is
common in such meanings as ‘proceed, be current’ and thus
often translates ‘be, exist’ in an ‘active’ as opposed to a stative
sense, particularly where the subject is an abstract noun.

hanta, bibhatsam agrato vartate [Oh, repulsiveness is going
on in front:] What ghastliness is before me!

atlva me kautukam vartate [there is curiosity in me exces-
sively:] I am feeling intensely curious

ka vela vartate? what time is it?

Past active participle

The possessive suffix vant, in addition to its regular use with
substantives, may be added to past participles. Its effect is to
convert a passive sense into an active: so likhita ‘written’,
likhitavant ‘having written’. In itself, however; such a descrip-
tion gives a misleading impression of the scope of the formation,
for in practice (apart from its occurrence in locative absolutes) it
is usually confined to a particular function - that of providing
an active alternative to past passive sentences by standing in the
nominative as a predicate to a nominative subject. The object, if
there is one, stands in the accusative case. So instead of tena
likhito lekhah ‘[by him (is) written the letter:] he has written the
letter’, we may have sa lekham likhitavan ‘[he (is) having writ-,
ten the letter:] he has written the letter’. When the subject is first
or second person, it is usually expressed by the appropriate form
of as ‘be’ (occasionally by the pronoun):

Men aka ldla sakhyas te janma-pratisth» eti sakhbjanld asmi
srutavin I heard from (her) friends that Menaka was the
mother of your friend’s wife (the first sakhl = wife of a
friend, janma-pratistha lit. birth-foundation)

The participle naturally agrees with the subject in number and
gender as well as case:

chapter 9

atha tah . . . mam angull-villsen> akhyltavatyah then they (f.)
announced me with a playful movement of their fingers

The chief effect of this construction is to enable the subject of
past statements to be put into the nominative rather than the in-
strumental case. The formation is unnecessary with past
participles which do not bear a passive sense, and is not usually
found in such cases. Occasionally, however a form such as (sa)
agatavatl ‘she came’ for (si) Igatl does occur. The subject of a
past active participle is normally personal, and masculine or
feminine in gender

Exocentric compounds: prepositional compounds

In addition to the ubiquitous determinative-based bahuvrlhis,
there exists a rather smaller class of exocentric compounds in
Sanskrit in which the first member stands in the relationship of
a governing preposition to the second member. These com-
pounds are exceptional in that the relationship between the
elements is neither co-ordinative nor determinative: in punctuat-
ing them, this relationship has therefore been left unmarked, and
only the underscore, denoting exocentric value, is employed.

Typical examples are: ati_mltra ‘exceeding the proper measure’,
from ati ‘beyond’ and mltrl f. ‘measure’; piatiloma ‘against the
nap, a reborns’; upari_martya ‘above mortals, superhuman’. An
English example would be ‘over-head’ as in ‘over_head railway’.

The prepositions thus have a different value from when they are
used with determinative relationship. This may be illustrated by
examples of the prefixes ati ‘beyond’ and ut ‘up, high’, which in
prepositional compounds carries the significance ‘eschewing’:

(a) karmadhafaya (substantive or adjective):

athbhirah excessive load ut:svanah high sound

atkblbhatsa excessively repulsive uc:canda highly
violent

(b) determinative-based bahuvrlhi:

ati:bala having excessive strength ut:kama having the
ears (pricked) up

(c) prepositional compound:

ati_bodhisattva surpassing the bodhisattvas un_nidra
renouncing sleep, wakeful

sa and nis

Particularly common is a pair of prefixes of opposed meaning,
sa ‘with, having’ and nis ‘without, lacking’. [Since these pre-
fixes do not occur as independent prepositions, it would be pos-
sible to treat them as contracting a karmadharaya relationship
like su, dus and a: the present treatment is adopted because it is
convenient to distinguish, for example, sa_rupa ‘having form’
from the more indisputably karmadharaya value of sayrQpa
‘having the same form’, and because nis is not normally an al-
ternative to a in forming simple karmadhirayas.] So nirjksa
‘without hope, hopeless’; sa_visa ‘with poison, having poison’
(e.g. sa_visam ausadham ‘poisoned medicine’).

sa is so common a prefix that it is worth distinguishing
various shades of meaning and possible translations:

i ‘Accompanied by’:

sa _putra agatah ‘he has come with his son’ (This is a
common alternative to saying putrena saha.)

z ‘And’:

115

This is the previous usage extended to cases where we would
probably use co-ordination in English: sa_saras c&pah ‘[bow
with arrow:] bow and arrow’.

atah khalu me sa_bahya f karano >ntar:atma prasldati
[from this of course:] so that is why my soul within and my
external senses are at peace

3 ‘Possessing, containing, having’:

Here the sense is close to that of the suffix vant. Both balavant
and sajbala may be translated ‘possessing strength, strong’.
When a distinction can be drawn, it is that sa marks a tempo-
rary, vant a more permanent characteristic: so sa_putra means
‘having a son with one’ as opposed to ‘alone’; putravant means
‘having a son’ as opposed to ‘childless’. Compounds with sa are
particularly common in the neuter singular as adverbs of man-
ner: e.g. sa_kopam ‘with anger; angrily’.

Compounds with yathS

Conveniently classed with prepositional compounds, although
strictly distinguishable from them, are compounds whose first
member is a relative adverb, most often yatha ‘as’: so yatha_>rtha

chapter 9

‘as (is) the meaning, corresponding to the meaning’; yath£_>rha
‘as deserved’; yath»_6kta ‘as stated’, yath&_nirdista ‘as specified’.

The term avyayibhSva

These latter particularly, and prepositional compounds in gen-
eral, are most frequently employed in the neuter singular as ad-
verbs. (The same usage is found in English, as in ‘the
aeroplane passed overhead’, in contrast with the non-compound
form ‘the aeroplane passed over our heads’.) When so used, the
class has a special name in Sanskrit, avyaylbh&va ‘conversion to
indeclinable’. Thus a_mOlam ‘down to the root, radically’,
anu_Malim-t1ram ‘along the bank of the Malinl’. Particularly
noteworthy is the distributive use of the preposition prati:
from kriya ‘action’, prati_kriyam ‘action for action’; from
dinam ‘day’, pratLdinam ‘day by day, daily’.

Polite forms of address

In Sanskrit it is not positively impolite to address someone in
the second person singula^ but more specifically polite forms of
address are also common. These usually involve a substantive
construed with a third person verb form and having a literal
meaning something like ‘Your Honour’ (cf. Spanish usted ).
Much the commonest, so common that its force is very little dif-
ferent from that of the second person pronoun, is bhavant
‘you’. (The various translations here attached are merely mat-
ters of convenience.) This is usually considered to have origi-
nated from a contraction of bhagavant ‘Your Reverence’ and is
inflected like any other stem ending in the suffix vant: it is thus
to be distinguished from bhavant ‘being’, present participle of
bhfi ‘be’, of which the nominative singular masculine is bhavan
with short a.

sulabh* aiva BuddharaksitS-priyasakhf bhavatah Buddha-
raksitd’s dear friend [is really easily-won by Your Honour:]
is easy enough for you to win (one young man talking to
another)

In talking of someone in his absence, the compound form tatrab-
havant ‘His Honour [there]’ may be used; similarly,
atrabhavant ‘His Honour [here]’, usually of someone actually
present, whether addressed directly or not.

The feminine forms of these pronouns are bhavatl,
tatrabhavati, atrabhavatl.

Sometimes as a mark of respect the plural of the second person [711
or of bhavant (yflyam, bhavantah) is used in addressing one per- ' 1 1
son. Among other possible forms of polite address are:

3ryah [the noble one:] Your/His Excellency; f. irya

Syusmant [the long-lived one:] Sire etc.— used particularly
but not exclusively of kings and monks

bhagavant [the blessed one:] Your/His Reverence — used
of religious people and gods: thus bhagavad-glta Song
of the Blessed One (i.e. Krishna); f. bhagavatl.

tnahabh&gah [the fortunate one:] noble sir, the noble ^
gentleman used especially by women in addressing or re- ^
f erring to men of good birth

These forms (from Iryah onwards) are also used freely in the
vocative. In addition, the vocative form bhadra ‘my good fellow,
my dear man’ is often used in addressing men of comparatively
low social status.

janah

The word janah ‘person, people’ is used at the end of a determi-
native compound to imply indefiniteness or plurality:
kamkjanah ‘a lover, some lovers, lovers in general’. As part of a
longer compound it thus helps to suggest a plural: suhrdvacana-
sammfldha ‘bewildered by the word of his friend’, suhrjtjana-
vacana-sammudha ‘bewildered by the words of his (various)
friends’. A respectful vagueness rather than plurality may be
implied: gunujanah ‘elders, tutor; guardian’; m3tr:janah ‘(my)
mother’.

distya

The form distya, literally ‘by good luck’, is used to express
strong pleasure:

sakhe SakatadSsa, distya drsto >si Sakatadasa my friend,
thank heaven I see you

In particular, it is used with the verb vrdh ‘grow, prosper’
to express congratulations, the reason for the congratulations
being expressed in the instrumental:

bhadre Madayantike, distya vardhase bhratur Malati-
labhena dear MadayantikS, you are congratulated
(I congratulate you) on your brother’s winning of Malati

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118

<0

[The causative of vrdh thus has the same construction as the
English ‘congratulate’ and is used where the simple verb
cannot be (as it can in the previous example): t&m distya
vardhitavtn asi ‘you congratulated her’.]

Denominative verbs

Denominative verbs are verbs formed from nouns (in the wider
sense of substantives and adjectives): thus in English ‘bowdlerise’
from the proper name ‘Bowdler’; ‘hand’ (‘he hands’) from the
substantive ‘hand’; ‘blacken’ from the adjective ‘black’. Where
verbs and nouns exist side by side, we may hesitate (unless we
have historical information) as to which has priority— what, for
instance, of ‘a brush’ and ‘he brushes’? A practical distinction
exists in Sanskrit, in that the grammarians assigned roots to all
verbs which they did not regard as denominative.

The most usual type of denominative in Sanskrit is made by the
addition of the suffix ya to the noun stem (the third person sin-
gular present thus ends in yati). The significance of the
formation varies with the noun. From tapas ‘religious austerity’
is formed tapasyati ‘he practises austerities’; from namas
‘homage’, namasyati ‘he pays homage’. It may be noted that the
roots tap ‘be hot’ and nam ‘bend’ (both class I verbs), from
which the above nouns in turn derive, have ‘suffer pain, practise
austerities’ and ‘bow, pay homage’ among their meanings. Thus
tapati and namati are more ‘primitive’ non-denominative alter-
natives to the specialised denominatives tapasyati and
namasyati. Stems in a do not lose the vowel before the suffix: so
from deva, devayad ‘he cultivates the gods, is pious’. Stems in a
also form denominatives with lengthened a. These latter are
usually intransitive and conjugated in the atmanepada, and may
correspond to a transitive form in ayati: so from sithila ‘slack’,
sithilayati ‘slackens (trans.), makes loose’ and sithilSyate ‘slack-
ens (intrans.), becomes loose’. More rarely, another type of
denominative is found which lacks the ya suffix: thus from
ut:kantha ‘[having the neck raised:] eager’, utkanthate ‘longs
for, is in love with’.

Examples of denominative verbs which, because of their accent,
are classed as class X verbs have been given in Chapter 7.
Another such example is mantr (X mantrayate) ‘takes
counsel’, which is really based on mantrah ‘counsel’, the latter
deriving in turn from the root man ‘think’. The absolutives of

Vrddhi derivatives

•

Secondary nominal formations from existing nominal stems are
made in a wide variety of ways in Sanskrit: thus from
rQpam ‘beauty’, rfipavant (or rfipin— see Chapter io) ‘beauti-
ful’, riipavattara ‘more beautiful’, etc. One of the most charac-
teristic types of formation involves a strengthening to vrddhi
grade of the first syllable of the stem and the addition of a suf-
fix, most usually a or ya. Stems ending in a or a lose their final
vowel before either suffix (so that one a may merely be ex-
changed for another). The general sense of the formation is
something like ‘belonging or appertaining to, deriving from’,
etc. From puram ‘city’, paura ‘urban’; as a masculine substan-
tive, paurah ‘citizen’. From purusah ‘man’, paurusa ‘manly’; as a
neuter substantive, paurusam ‘manliness’. From a consonant
stem, tapas ‘religious austerity’, tipasah ‘one who practises aus-
terities, an ascetic’. From a feminine substantive Yamuna ‘the
river Yamuna (Jumna)’, Yamuna (f. YamunI) ‘relating to the
Yamuna’. Similarly, from vidya ‘learning’, vaidya ‘learned’,
vaidyah ‘physician’. Where sandhi has reduced the prefix vi to
vy in tfie original noun, it is expanded by vrddhi to vaiy: thus
vyakaranam ‘analysis, grammar’, vaiy&karanah ‘grammarian’.

Two types of formation are especially noteworthy:

i Many patronymics (‘son or descendant of’) are formed with
vrddhi and the suffix a: Saubhadrah ‘son of Subhadra’;
Marlcah ‘(Kasyapa) son of Marlci’; Daivodasa ‘descended
from Divodasa’. Stems ending in u usually make guna of this
vowel as well as vrddhi of the initial syllable: Pauravah
‘descendant of Puru’. The feminine of these forms is always in
I: Draupadl ‘daughter of Drupada’. Instead of patronymic value,
the forms may sometimes bear the sense of ‘king’ or ‘leader’:
Saibyah ‘king of the Sibis’; Vasavah ‘(the god Indra) chief of the
Vasus’. And there are yet other kinds of relationship which may
be similarly expressed— thus Saivah ‘follower of the god Siva’.

z From adjectives and substantives, neuter abstract substantives
are often formed by vrddhi and the suffix ya. So adhika ‘supe-
rior’, idhikyam ‘superiority’; sadrsa ‘like, similar’, s&drsyam
‘likeness, similarity’; vi:manas ‘Respondent’, vaimanasyam
‘despondency’; sujanah ‘good person’, saujanyam ‘benevolence,
kindness’; panditah ‘scholar’, pindityam ‘learning, scholarship’.

Although both types of formation (and especially the latter)
are fairly productive, the above remarks are intended merely
to be explanatory: vrddhi derivatives are listed in the vocabulary

chapter 9

120

Vocabulary

agni m. foe

anguli f. or angull finger
anjali m. die hands joined to-
gether (in salutation or for alms)
atikrtnta [gone beyond:] past,
bygone

atidaruna dreadful
atyud&ra proud, noble
anu_rflpa conformable, suit-
able, proper

anvita accompanied by, full of
aparKgah disaffection
a:pflrva unprecedented, strange
arthah meaning
avagrahah obstacle, restraint
a:visayah [non-sphere:] matter
beyond the scope (of)
akhya appellation, name
atapah heat (esp. of sun)
atma-ja [bom of oneself:]
daughter

ayusmant long-lived (see p. 112)
asrama-padam site of
hermitage, hermitage
asanna near; ifc. beside
ugra fierce
utsuka eager; utsukam
eagerness

upakarah help, aiding (of)
upajapah instigation to
rebellion, ‘overtures’
upapanna suitable, possible
rsi m. seer
Kanvah pr. n.

gatha verse (esp. in the dryd
metre)

guru heavy; m. teacher; elder;

senior; guardian
cetas n. mind, heart

-jfia ifc. knowing, aware of,
recognising

tatrabhavant His Honour etc.
(see p. 116)

tatrabhavati that lady etc. (see
p. 11 6)

tapas n. (religious) austerity
daruna cruel
dhl mant wise
nir.utsuka without eagerness
patni wife; dharma-patni
lawful wife

para vant [having another:]
under another’s control; beside
oneself, overwhelmed
paryapta sufficient
parthrvah king, ruler
Pundarikah pr. n.
prakrti f. nature, disposition;

pi. subjects (of king)
pranidhi m. (secret) agent
pratijna promise
prafosta delighted
bakulam bakula-tree blossom
bahumanah respect
brahman n. (religious) chastity
bhagavant reverend (sir) (see
pp. 116-17)

bhadra good; m. voc. my good
fellow

bhavanam house, residence
bhavaat you (see pp. 116-17)
Bhflrivasu m., pr. n.
mandarah, mandlra:vrksakah
coral-tree

mahiman m. greatness
Mah»:endrah [the great] Indra
mala garland
mrgaya hunting, the chase

yath»_okta as stated, as
described

rathy3 [carriage-]road, street
ramaniya attractive
lajja shame, embarrassment
lekhah letter, epistle
valaya m./n. bracelet; circle,
enclosure
vikramah valour
vighnah obstacle, hindrance
vibhfiti f. splendour; wealth;
pi. riches

vivasvant m. [the Shining One:]
the sun

visam poison; visa-kany&
poison-girl

Visnusannan m., pr. n.
vismayah astonishment
vela time [of day)

Vaideha belonging to (the
country of) Videha

vyasanam weak spot, weakness
vySparah occupation
satru m. enemy
sasvata {f. i) perpetual
sakhe voc. of sakhi m. friend
sacivah counsellor; minister
samdarsanam sight, beholding
(of)

samnihita present {as opp.
absent)

samagamah meeting with,
union

sambhavya credible
sammardah crush, encounter;
throng

sadhu good; n. sadhu bravo!
sotil daughter
Saudhataki m., pr. n.
hem m. motive, ground for
{loc.)

homah oblation, sacrifice

121

anu + stha (I anutisthati, p.p. anusthita) carry out, perform, act

anu + smr (I anusmarati) remember

abhi dha (ID abhidadhati, p.p. abhihita) say, speak

abhi + vad earn, (abhivadayate) greet

a + dis (VI adisati) order, proclaim

a + sank (I asahkate) fear; doubt, be afraid

utkanthate dertom. long for; be in love with (gen.)

upa + labh (I upalabhate) acquire, ascertain, discover

upa + stha (I upatisthate) stand near, be at hand

ksam (I ksamate) be patient, endure

gam cam. (gamayati) spend (time)

tarj cam. (tarjayati) threaten, scold

dah (I dahati) burn

ni + ksip (VI niksipati) throw, cast into {loc.)-, place, deposit
ni + vid cam. (nivedayati) report, inform someone (datJgen.) of
something (acc.)

ni + vrt (I nivartate) go back, return

pari + vrdh cam. (parivardhayati) cause to grow, tend (plants)

chapter 9

prati + budh (IV pratibudhyate ) wake up (intrans.)

pia + stha cans, (prasthapayati) despatch

man (IV manyate) think, suppose

vac (II vakti, p.p. ukta) tell, say

vrt (I vartate) exist etc. (see chapter text)

vrdh (I vardhate) increase, prosper; + distyS: see chapter text

sam + car (I samcarate) walk, stroll

sam + dis (VI samdisati) command

sam + r cam. (samarpayati) hand over to (datJgen.)

sam -i- mantr (X sammantrayati) take counsel, consult

smr cam. (sm3rayati) cause to remember; remind

han earn, (ghatayati) cause to be killed, have killed

atha now (as unemphatic introductory particle)
kacdd (interrogative particle introducing tentative enquiry) perhaps?
lam id with what in mind? why?
tatah thereupon, then

nama (often used as an emphatic particle) indeed etc.

nis ibc. without, lacking (see chapter text)

piak previously, before

prSyena generally

bahusah often

yatha ibc., see chapter text

sa ibc., see chapter text

samprati now

hi assuredly

Exercise 9a fo gr fia H fti r i anfa ftaafafc aan. r i q w i mfci :
mpafit r i aafafaan& a: i* i ipafla* aaa: mi

arasaftaat statat fa^aaifa tit asftaaglaa feajaafcamfir ri
ad faw^r id i r i

r<* i aignsfMi m i vaa^a arg asfaafaaat aw

Rai a^afa r 3 i aaj anil ijf^aafraig

i \ * i fawa sfaftaai^ i \\ i «w ar aaaaft famnswaTiat:

a# i Hi as w n fira t yl ait Reitwafta^aaaaftaa
afi ffr ni ba aT iui fowr afaftaawfri qaysraagfta argwratfo
r^ i aOwiam^ui : ^aa: jtwiPm: ro lasroaiawp:

awfw a$t ?a a a: wSt awiw^Ki aarta^ r* i aarfa
an£T5?na-pi?a ^aat afa faa<ga> $a ; r? i srfa

i^uuNtotti ww *fii?it
gsaT ^raftrat TraT nggn-n fawura n: “otjur <rri fawpnftft
yiRpawWffan^ it?* n

Exercise 9b Use the past active participle where appropriate.
‘You’ when preceded by an asterisk is to be translated by bha-
vant.

i Is (your) austerity without-hindrance ? 2 Friend Makaranda,
are *you in love with Madayantika? 3 But where did Malatl
see Madhava before? 4 Lady, a shame -less Laksmana herewith
[esah] salutes (you). 5 What do *you [/>/.] say? 6 Malatl
has-a-noble-nature. 7 The riches of Minister-Bhurivasu are in-
deed attractive. 8 There is a dreadful throngof-people. 9 I
told *you the story [vrttantah]-of-(my)-first-sight of $akuntala.
10 Reverend Arundhatf, I Slradhvaja (King) of Videha greet
(you). 11 Are CandraguptaVsubjects responding to [ksam]
our-overtures? 12 He thinks me actually not-present. 13 A
rather [ko >pi] strange ground-forrespect towards [ loc .] (one’s)
elders, Saudhataki! 14 This (man), employed-by-RSksasa, had
Parvatesvara killed by a poison-girl. 15 (She) casts the gar-
land-of-bakulas into Madhava ’s joined hands. 1 6 (I) congratu-
late *you on your greatness-in-valour; sufficient-forthe-aiding-of-
Mahendra. 17 Thereupon there enters, her-occupation-as-
described, together with two [female] friends, SakuntaU.

18 Truly [nanu] friend, we [two] often walk along [instr.] the
very street-beside-the-ministerVresidence— so this is possible.

19 To CandraguptaVsubjects assuredly it is Canakya’s-faults
which are grounds-for-disaffection. 20 Friend, the sun bums
without-restraint, as cruel as fate. 21 Bravo, Vrsala, bravo! You
have commanded (this) after consulting with my own [eva]
heart. 22 Ah! the meaning-of-the-verse is ‘I am one-who-has-
[jna] -news-of -Kusumapura, and *your-agent\ 23 See, we two
have entered Praj&pati’s hermitage, its-coral- trees-tended-by-
Aditi. 24 This time when-the-heat-is-fierce that lady generally
spends with-her-friends on the banks-of-the-Malini with-[vant]-
(their)-endosures-of-creepers.

chapter 9

Paradigms: Stems in i and G, stri; stems in in; present participles
in ant, maMnt; imperative (para, and atm.) of nl

Stems in 7 and u

Polysyllabic stems in I such as nadi were introduced in Chapter 7.
The declension of the few polysyllables in Q is exactly parallel,
with the important exception that they add h in the nominative
singular. Quite different from these, and parallel to each other, are
the monosyllabic stems in I and 0: these in effect are like conso-
nant stems, with ifii changing to iy/uv before vowels (though they
have the option of the special feminine endings ai, ah and am).

It will be noted that the word stri ‘woman* behaves more like a
polysyllabic than a monosyllabic stem: it is to be treated as one,
and probably was one in origin.

It has already been mentioned that nouns like nadi are rare at the
end of an exocentric compound. Sometimes the difficulty is sur-
mounted by the addition of the adjectival suffix ka: so
sa_patni~ka ‘with one’s wife*, pravrtta;bibhatsa: lamvadantT'ka
‘(citizens) among whom foul rumours are current*. The sign" is used
here to indicate that the suffix is added to the compound as a whole.
Exocentric compounds based on Ifa monosyllables and determina-
tives formed with verbal roots in I and 0 do occur, and are most usu-
ally inflected like the plain monosyllables (alternative forms being
possible, but neuter forms of any kind befog little found). Examples
are sujdhi ‘of good intelligence’, padma-bhu ‘sprung from a lotus’.

Stems in in

The inflexion of stems in in presents little difficulty. They are es-
sentially single-stem, but the final n drops before consonants

' and in the nominative (vocative) and accusative neuter singular.
The nominative singular masculine ends in i, and the nomina-
tive, vocative and accusative neuter plural in mi; the feminine
adds I— thus dhanini.

125

The suffix in is a common alternative to the suffix vant after
stems in a or a, the final vowel being dropped. Thus balavant or
balin ‘possessing strength, strong’; sikhSvant or sikhin ‘crested’.
With die same meaning, but rare, are the suffixes vin (in partic-
ular after a number of nouns in as) and min. Two common ex-
amples of the former are tapasvin ‘practising austerities, ascetic’
(also ‘pitiable’) and manasvin ‘possessed of intelligence’. The
substantive svamin ‘owner, master’ derives from sva ‘own’ and
the suffix min.

in as a verbal suffix

The same suffix may also be added, with strengthening of the
root, to verbs: so from the root pat, patin ‘flying, falling’. [In this
instance at least, it might seem that the suffix can be regarded as
added to the verbal action noun patah ‘flight, fall’, and certainly
the distinction between the ‘primary’ formation described here
and the ‘secondary’ formation described above is not absolute.
But there are limiting cases of difference of form: thus from bhuj
‘enjoy’, the velar consonant of bhogah ‘enjoyment’ contrasts
with the palatal of bhojin ‘enjoying’.] In this formation the root
syllable is almost invariably heavy, medial a being lengthened
where necessary to a. Roots ending in a take a connecting y: thus
sthayin ‘remaining, stable’.

The formation has an active verbal meaning, close to that
of the present participle. Where it differs from this latter is in
tending towards a more general, characterising sense: e.g.
nagaragami margah ‘the road going to the city’. The difference
is conveniently illustrated by the phrase Candragupt>-anuyayina
raja-loken> anugamyamanah ‘being attended (on this occasion-
present participle) by the princes that (would normally — adjec-
tive in in) attend Candragupta’.

Here are examples from the verbs chid ‘cut out’, anu + kr ‘imi-
tate’, hr ‘carry’, sams ‘proclaim’:

vimarsa-cchedi vacanam [the speech is doubt-removing:]
(her) words are such as to remove all doubt

sakhe, kv> edanim upavistah priyayah lam cid anukirinisu
latSsu drstim vinodaySmi? Friend, where shall I now

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126

[being seated, distract:] sit and distract my gaze among
vines that somewhat imitate my beloved?

kim Kanva-samdesa-harinah sa_strl~k 2 s tapasvinah? ascetics
with women, bringing a message from Kanva (you say)?

aye, daksinena priya-carana-niksepa-samsi nupurasabdah
ah, a sound of anklets’ to the right, proclaiming my
beloved’s tread

While it may not always be easy to distinguish the meaning
of this formation from that of the present participle, certain
clear-cut distinctions of a formal nature do exist. The present
participle may govern an accusative and may not normally
stand at the end of a compound (in these respects it resembles
a finite verb form). The verbal noun in in, on the other hand,
with rare exceptions cannot govern an accusative and (as the
above examples illustrate) is commoner at the end of a compound
than as an isolated form.

Present participle

Two participles are attached to the present stem (and other
thematic a paradigms), one in ant (parasmaipada) and one in
amSna (atmanepada): so nayant ‘leading’, vartarnSna ‘going on,
current, contemporary’.

The declension of participles in ant differs from that of stems in
vant/mant in only two particulars: the nominative singular mas-
culine ends in an (not * in), and the feminine (and the neuter
dual form) is anti (not *atl). (Remember that by sandhi a final
an becomes ann before vowels.)

[On the formation of athematic participles (Chapter iz onwards)
the following points should be noted. The feminine (and neuter
dual) is in ati (this is also an option for class VI verbs and fu-
tures). The strong stem is like the third person plural paras-
maipada without the final i, and in reduplicated verbs is therefore
simply at: note that as a further consequence the nominative sin-
gular masculine (as well as neuter) in these verbs ends in t not n,
e.g. dadat ‘(he) giving’. For athematics, the atmanepada termina-
tion is 3na not amana.]

It was pointed out in Chapter 5 that where the English partici-
ple in ‘-ing’ represents an action prior to that of the main verb
its usual Sanskrit equivalent is the absolutive. The Sanskrit pres-
ent participle is therefore normally reserved for actions or states
which can be seen as contemporaneous with those of the main
verb. Whether active or middle, it agrees syntactically with the

subject and governs an object in the accusative:

puts ldla Karal»-5yatane Malatim upaharann Aghoraghantah
krp3naip3nir Madhavena vyapaditah some time ago, it
seems, while (engaged in) sacrificing Malati in the temple of
Kar&la, Aghoraghanta knife in hand was slain by Madhava

ati:kr panah khalv ami pranah, yad upakarinam api tatam kv>
api gacchantam ady> api n> anugacchanti that li/e (of
mine) is indeed extremely niggardly, in that even today it
does not follow (my) father although he was my benefac-
tor as he goes somewhere (the father has died)

vanam gatena may! ka cid a;saranyi vyaktaikarpanya> sru
muncanti vanita vilokita having gone to the forest I saw
a woman without refuge and of obvious wretchedness
shedding tears

Beyond simple contemporaneity, a casual or (with the addition
of api) a concessive force may be implied. One particular impli-
cation, that of responsibility, ‘doing B by virtue of doing A’, de-
serves special mention. It may usually be turned in English by
the translation ‘in/by (doing etc.)':

atm ana krto >yam dosah Samjivakam Pingalakasakasam
anayata it is (I) myself, in bringing Samjivaka to
Pingalaka, who have done this mischief

evam atidurmanayamanah pidayati mam vatsah the dear
child tortures me by being so miserable

The verb as ‘be’ forms a present participle sant, feminine satf,
which may function as an adjective meaning ‘real, true, good,
virtuous’ (hence ‘suttee’). As a participle it is sometimes added
pleonastically to predicative adjectives, particularly compounds:
e.g. prasanna^manasa sata Madhavena ‘by Madhava, being of
tranquil mind’.

127

mahSnt

The adjective mahant ‘great’ is irregular in having a strong stem
in ant (the middle and weak stem is mahat). The feminine is
mahati, the nominative singular masculine mahan. The stem
form for karmadharaya and bahuvrlhi compounds is maha, for
others mahat.

enam

enam is an enclitic pronoun, occurring only in the accu-
sative (enam, enam, enat; enau, ene; enan, enah, enani), the
instrumental singular (enena, enaya) and the genitive/locative

chapter 10

dual (enayoh). (Of these the commonest forms are enam and
en&m.) It is used as an unemphatic third person pronoun (‘him,
her’), not usually adjectival, and normally referring to persons.
Oblique cases other than the accusative may be supplied by the
pronoun ayam (see Chapter 5 ).

Stem forms in composition

It may be useful to summarise here the ways in which the form
of a stem as it appears in a compound may differ from the form in
which the word is quoted in a dictionary (apart from the normal
operation of the rules of external sandhi). Of nouns in general
it need only be pointed out that consonant stems show their
middle form: so Stman becomes atma; dhanin, dhani; and bhaga-
vant, bhagavat (this last being at any rate the form in which such
stems are often quoted). The. use of pronouns in composition is
somewhat restricted. The first person forms mat and asmat, sec-
ond person tvat and yusmat (dual forms are hardly found), and die
demonstrative tat are used freely, except as the final member of the
compound. The relative yat is also used freely, but only as the first
member. Of the interrogative pronoun kah, the (primarily neuter)
form kim occurs quite often: not, of course, in the animate sense
of ‘who(m)’, but capable of qualifying a substantive of any gen-
der— as in Idnuvy3p3ra ‘of whom die occupation (vy&parah m.) is
what?’ The pronouns ayam, enam and asau have as stem forms
idam and adas.

Certain words change to forms from different, though related,
stems when used in composition. So, at the end of a compound,
ahan ‘day’, rSjan ‘king’, ritri ‘night’ and sakhi ‘friend’ become a
stems: aha, raja, ratra and sakha. mah&nt ‘great’ when forming
the prior member of a karmadharaya or, in consequence, a
bahuvrlhi compound regularly changes to mahl: the stem form
mahat, even in the substantival sense of ‘great man’, is not very
much used. Two of the changes mentioned are illustrated in the
karmadharaya mah&:r&jah ‘great king’.

The imperative

One way of expressing a command or wish in Sanskrit is by
means of the imperative mood, which is a part of the present
stem: so gaccha ‘go!’, paritr&yasva nah ‘save us!’. The impera-
tive is in effect confined to the second and third persons. The
first person forms given in grammars to complete the paradigms
are really survivals of the old subjunctive mood, and at any rate

are not particularly common; first person expressions like ‘let’s
go’ are usually put in the indicative— thus gacchavah.

In moderately urgent second person commands, the verb, as is
natural, tends to stand first (after any vocative), unless special
emphasis is put on some other item in the sentence:

sflta, preray> asvan driven start the horses

masI-bhSjanam pattram c > opanaya bring inkpot and paper

But if an absolutive is also used, chronological sequence should
be preserved:

vayasya, upasrtya LavangikS-sthane tistha go up and stand
in Lavaftgika’s place, friend

If less urgent instructions or a wish are in question, the verb may
stand elsewhere, often (and particularly in the latter case) at the
end:

sakhe Viradhagupta, tvam anen> alv> ahitundikacchadmanS
punah Kusumapuram eva gaccha Viradhagupta my
friend, you are to go back again to Kusumapura in this
same disguise of a snake-charmer

vatsa, dram prthivun pSlaya my child, long may you protect
the earth

When an imperative is genuinely ‘third person’, the same vari-
ous principles apply:

arye, tisthatu tavad ajna-niyogah good (wife), for the mo-
ment [let the entrusting of orders stand:) never mind what
orders I have for you

atrabhavati tavad a prasavSd asmad-grhe tisthatu this lady,
then, should remain in our house till her confinement

But where the third person is used as a polite form of address, it
is particularly common for the imperative to stand as penulti-
mate word followed by the quasi-pronoun:

bho bhos tapasvinah, tapo-vana-samnihita:sattvaraksanaya
sajjibhavantu bhavantah ho there ascetics, prepare [for
the defending of:] to defend the creatures about the ascetic
t grove ,

? person imperative ofjjbh does' not ^ually stand,. as

^ ’So Tfcj second persbii fdfms> '

■; oras are rare,‘btft the third persanfornjsare freely usedM^,bf

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130

course, are necessary as copula where indicative forms could I
dispensed with:

viditam astu deva-p3dan5m be it known to Your Maje
sty[’s feet] . . .

The use of the imperative in an iti clause is a device allowing the|
representation of ‘indirect command’ in the widest sensei
Translation by means of the English infinitive is usually appro-'
priate:

nanv idanlm eva may! tatra Kalahamsakah presitah ‘praccha-
nnam upagamya Nandan>-dvlsa-pravrttim upalahhasv>’ ed
why, I have just now sent Kalahamsaka there, [(saying):?
‘after approaching stealthily find out events in Nandana’s
house’:] to find out discreetly what has been happening in
Nandana’s house

To express a prohibition the negative particle to be used with the
imperative is m3, e.g. ml gaccha ‘don’t go’. This, however is
rare, the more elegant alternative (as mentioned in Chapter 15)
being the use of m3 with the unaugmented form of the aorist or
occasionally of the imperfect. Even this is not especially fre-
quent. The usual way of expressing a prohibition if it implies
‘cease to’ is simply alam or some other particle with the instru-
mental: alam sokena ‘do not grieve (any more)’. But in other cir-
cumstances, probably commonest is the use of the gerundive
(Chapter 12):

Vrsala, sa_visam ausadham— na p3tavyam Vrsala,
the medicine’s poisoned— don’t drink it

Abstract nouns

Mention was made in the previous chapter of the formation
of neuter abstract nouns (i.e. substantives) by means of vrddhi, e.g.
pSndityam ‘learning’. Another device to achieve the same effect,
ana a simpler one to apply, is the use of the suffixes tvam (neuter)
and t3 (feminine, this latter normally restricted to occurrence after
a stem ending in a short vowel, usually a): so panditatvam and
panditatS ‘learning’, or more explicitly ‘being a pandit’. These suf-
fixes may be added not merely to simple words but also to whole
compounds: e.g. ramanlya;darsana~ta ‘the state of having an
attractive appearance’. [As in the case of the adjectival suffix ka,
discussed above, the sign ~ indicates that the suffix is to be added
to the compound as a whole. The following example will illustrate
the potential difference of meaning: nis_p3nditya means ‘(who is)

.without scholarship’; nis_panditatva would be a very improbable
formation with the same* meaning; but nis_pandita~tva means ‘the
state of being without a pandit’, as in the sentence lajjayati
gr5ma-niv5sino nis_pandita~tvam ‘being without a pandit embar-
rasses those living in die village’.]

Most of the uses of abstract nouns possible in English are possi-
ble also in Sanskrit. In particular (and in contrast to Latin and
Greek), their use as the subject of an active verb does not imply
any vivid personification of the abstract concept:

ata eva mSm prayojana-susrusa mukharayati that is why the
desire to learn [susr&sl] of (your) motives is making me
[talkative:] so persistent

Often an abstract noun is the subject of a nominal sentence:

131

rajfiam tu carit>iartha~t& >pi duhkh>:ottar» aiva but for
kings, [even the state of being one whose aims are effected
has as a consequence unhappiness:] even success is at-
tended with unhappiness

The difference between Sanskrit and English idiom lies in the
thoroughness with which Sanskrit exploits the various, possible
uses of abstract nouns, and particularly in the potential length of
abstract compounds. The following sentence easily permits of
literal translation:

sa o Ausanasy3m danda-nitau catuh s as ty;ange jyotih-sastre
ca param prSvInyam upagatah and lie has attained a high
proficiency in tlie political science of Usanas and the [sixty-
four-limbed:] sixty-four branches of astronomy

But what in this particular sentence is unremarkable represents a
regular Sanskrit idiom whereby almost any verb of motion (and
some others implying acquisition etc.) may be construed with the
accusative of almost any abstract noun to express what we most
usually represent in English by ‘become’: so, in the above, ‘he has
become highly proficient’. Another example, showing better the
scope of the idiom, is:

tad idUnlm raj>-artha~t3m apadyate that now [arrives at
king-property-ness:] becomes the property of the king

Hence the common idiom for ‘he dies’, pancatvam gacchati ‘he
becomes five’, i.e. ‘is resolved into the five elements’.

Furthermore, the causative of these verbs, and any other verb of
appropriate sense such as nl ‘lead’, can be used in the sense of

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132

producing a certain condition in someone or something, Le.
‘making A [into] B’:

ioke gurutvam viparitat&m ca

sva:cestit3ny eva naram nayanti

in (this) world it is his own actions which [lead a man to im-
portant-ness and opposite-ness:] make a man important or the
reverse

In English we know without thinking about it that the phrase
‘the greenness of the grass’ is related to the phrase ‘green grass’.
In Sanskrit it is often advisable to keep the point more explicitly
in mind. To take an example of extreme simplicity, a commen-
tary discussing an author’s use of the term vyavahira ‘litigation’
in the plural says tasy> anekaividha~tvam darsayati bahuvaca-
nena ‘he shows by the plural the several-sortedness of it’. We
may, if we wish, translate this as ‘he indicates by the plural its
maidfoldness’. But we shall remind ourselves more plainly what
we are talking about, besides being fairer to the simplicity of the
original, if we say ‘he indicates by the plural that it is of several
sorts’. Often at any rate literal translation is impossible:

n> asty eva dhvanih, prasiddha:prasth3na-vyatire-ltinah ltiivya-
pral&rasya kavyatva-h&neh [dhvani (a technical term of
literary criticism) just does not exist, from the abandon-
ment of [/deficiency in] poetry-ness of a type of poetry dis-
tinct from established ways:] there is no such thing as
dhvani, for a kind of poetry which transgressed the recog-
nised norms would cease to be poetry

It would be quite mistaken to suppose, on the basis of such us-
ages, that the ‘thought’ of Sanskrit writers is somehow more ‘ab-
stract’ than our own. It would be truer to say that their style is
nominal rather than verbal. In coming to grips with academic
prose, students tend to be vague and ill at ease about the mean-
ing of sentences until the purely syntactical nature of this differ-
ence sinks in. And, as was implied above, even in translating
quite simple nominal phrases the possibility of ‘denominalisa-
tion’ in English should always be kept in mind.

In brief, the difference between English and Sanskrit usage is
that English noun, clauses (‘that the grass, is greea’J an^ noun
, phrases with a verbal component such as ah irifinkive ^'foj- t&' .
3 . .grass to bfe ^e^n’) tendljo be replaced jn Sansjei:it4>y a^hight
’ ab^raot noun' fthe gfee'nness 6f' the . KasS’h^NormjUyj' when J*
* “ ” #r both -subjective andx&jective gienitives are’ in^ofi?edy o^ly the' *

objective genitive is compounded with the abstract— e.g.
balanam kusum»avacayah ‘children’s flower-picking’: ‘for chil-
dren to pick flowers’.

133

Furthermore, the use of the abstract noun in various oblique
cases corresponds to English adverbial clauses and phrases of
various kinds. Commonest is the ablative of cause:

suhrt-samp5dita~tvat sldhutaraiphalo me manorathah
[from being brought about by (my) friend:] because (you
my) friend brought it about, my desire (has been) better re-
warded

No doubt because its ablative is not distinct in form from its
genitive, the suffix ta is less usual here than tvam or a vrddhi de-
rivative. But it is common enough in the instrumental, another
case which is used to express cause (‘by (reason of)’):

asau punar abhinivistayS drs& M2lati-mukh>-avalokana-
vihasta~taya visama:viracit>iaika : bhagam tarn eva bahu
manyamana ‘mahan ayam prasada’ iti grhitavati but she
with an intent glance, highly esteeming that same (garland)
of which one-portion-was-worked-unevenly [by clumsiness
through gazing:] because-(I)-had-been-clmnsy. through-gaz-
ing-on-Malati’s-face, accepted it (with the words) [‘this is a
great favour’:] ‘thank you very much indeed’

The dative is normally used with another type of abstract noun,
the verbal action noun, to express purpose. Examples of this, such
as nrpa-darsanaya ‘in order to see the king’, have already been en-
countered. The locative expresses circumstance of one kind or
another: kula-ksaye ‘on the destruction of the family: when/if the
family is destroyed’, prayojan>otpattau ‘if/when/as the need
arises’. The addition of api gives concessive force: kula-ksaye >pi
‘[even on destruction of the family:] despite destruction of the
family: though the family is/were to be destroyed’.

Exclamations

The English ‘what (a) . . .’, though it has direct Sanskrit equiv-
alents such as kidrsa, is more usually represented by the parti-
cle aho ‘oh!’ followed by a substantive in the nominative case:

aho samvaranam what duplicity!

aho riiga-parivShim gltih [oh the song overflowing with

passion/ ‘musical mood’:] what an impassioned song!

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134

Where the whole emphasis would be put on an adjective quali-
fying the substantive, the phrase is often turned round and the
adjective becomes an abstract noun: in other words, 'oh the
blue sky!’ becomes ‘oh the sky’s blueness!’ Similarly in English,
according to the particular emphasis intended, we may say ei-
ther ‘what a blue sky!’ or ‘how blue the sky is!’ The normal suf-
fix here is ta, or a vrddhi derivative, rather than tvam:

aho vaidagdhyam [oh the cleverness:] how clever (she is)!

aho sukha-pratyarthi~ta daivasya [oh the-being- hostile to-
happiness of fate:] how hostile fate is to happiness!

Sentences containing ‘how’ are slightly ambiguous in English
because they can be stressed more than one way. For this rea-
son, an acute accent has been added to mark the main sentence
stress: this falls somewhere on the word or phrase which ap-
pears as a nominative substantive in the Sanskrit:

aho vyabhri disah what a cloudless sky! or how cloudless
the sky is!

aho disSm vyabhratt how cloudless the sky is!

aho cesta-pratiriipika kami:jana-manovrttih how like to the
dee<j (itself) is a lover’s imagination!

‘Containing’

The word garbhah ‘womb, foetus’ occurs at the end of a
bahuvrlhi compound with the sense ‘having inside, containing’:
e.g. dhanaigarbham bhSndam ‘box containing money’; or, as a
sentence, ‘the box lias money in it’.

Verbal nouns in ti

The suffix ti may be added to the weak grade of a root to form
a feminine substantive. Thus gad (cf. Greek basis) ‘going, pro-
cedure, course’. The formation is less productive than those in a
and ana, and less ‘action-oriented’, tending towards a more gen-
eral sense. The ti is normally treated exactly like the ta of the
past participle (and is seldom found with verbs that form their
past participles in ita or na). Other examples are bhakti ‘devo-
tion’, drsti ‘sight, faculty of sight’, mati ‘thought’, siddhi
‘achievement’, vrddhi ‘growth’. A number of roots ending in d,
although forming a past participle in na, do take this suffix: thus
utpatti, from ut + pad, ‘arising’.

Vocabulary

ancalah border (of dress)
atisaya surpassing
an:adhyayanam [non-studying:]
holiday from lessons
apathya-karin [doing what is
unwholesome (to king):] traitor
apavadin decrying
a:pramadin [not negligent:]
vigilant

abhiyogah intentness, preoccu-
pation

avayavah portion, particle
asurah demon
adesah command
Syudham weapon
Svesah attack (of emotion)
utsarpin high-soaring
utsShah enthusiasm
upagrahah conciliation, winning
over

uparodhanam besieging (of)
upadhySyah teacher
eka pron. adj. one, alone
enam see chapter text
kalakalah disturbance, noise
karin doing
karyam affair; business
lddrsa (f. 1) of what kind? of
what kind! what (a)!
ksitipati tn. king
ksipra:karin [swift-acting:]
precipitate

igarbha see chapter text
grham quarters, chamber
grha-janah family ( more partic-
ularly wife)

cakravartin m. emperor
dandah stick; punishment
darsanlya attractive

darsin seeing, that see

dis (dik) f. cardinal point, region

(of sky); pi. sky, skies

duh;slla irritable
• *

dur;3tman vile

drdha firm
• •

Nandanah pr. n.
nir.daya pitiless
nrpah king
ny3yya regular, right
paksa-patin on the side of,
partial to

pahkti f. row, line
Pancavatf name of a place
patah cloth, robe
pati m. lord (of)
parijanah attendant, servant
pipdika ant
paurah citizen
ptatijna promise, assertion
pratividhanam precaution,
countermeasure against (gen.)
pratyavityah reverse, annoyance
pratySsanna near; at hand, about
pratyutpanna prompt, ready
pratyutpanna : mati ready-
witted

prabhflta numerous
prarthana longing
Candanedasah pr. n.
chidram hole, chink
tapasvin m. ascetic
tiksna sharp, severe
tiksna:rasah [sharp liquid:]
poison

tiksna:rasa-dayin [poison-
giving:] poisoner
tirtham ford, sacred bathing
place

135

chapter 10

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7171 taiksnyam sharpness

' trikalam [the three times:] past,
present and future
mati f. thought, wit
MadayantikS pr. n.

Manmathah (name of the god
of) Love

maharghya valuable

Madhavyah pr.n.

muni m. sage

mlecchah barbarian

raksas n. devil

vayas n. youth, age

Vasisthah pr. n.

vidha kind, sort;

rvidha such as

vimardah conflict

vivekah discrimination

viharin roaming

vyagra engrossed, intent

sayanam repose, sleeping;

sayana-grham bed-chamber

sarad f. autumn

sista learned; sist>-ana-
• • * • •

dhyayanam holiday in hon-
our of learned (guests)
siinya empty, devoid (of)
sokah grief

batu m. young brahmin (stu-
dent); fellow (used contemptu-
ously)

balam force, strength; sg. or pi.
(military) forces

balat forcibly
bahu many
bhaktam food
bhakd f. devotion, loyalty
bhavin future, imminent
bhitd f. wall
bhlru fearful
madhura sweet
sobha brilliance, beauty
sresthin m. eminent business-
man, merchant

sakhi [female] friend; wife of
one’s friend

samayah occasion, season
samadhi m. concentration
[religious] meditation
sambandhah union
sambhm assembled, prepared;

augmented
sarpah snake
salilam water
sahabhfi inherent, natural
samnidhyam presence
s>_avadhana careful
siddhi f. accomplishment,
success
surah god

suhrttamah close friend
strl woman
svamin m. master
svlkaranam marrying
svairam gently

anu + gam (I anugacchati) follow, attend

anu + bbQ (I anubhavati) experience, undergo

anu + rudh (IV anurudhyate) adhere to, comply with (acc.)

ava + lok (X avalokayati) see

akulayati denom. confuse, disturb

a + krs (I akarsati) drag, draw

a + pad (IV apadyate, p.p. apanna) attain, come to

ut + pad caus. (utpadayati) cause to arise, cause

at + vest caus. (udvestayati) unwrap, open (letter)
khei (I khelati) play

dnt (X dntayad) reflect, think things over

tvar (I tvarate) hurry; caus. tvarayad

dah caus. (dahayati) make burn, cause to be fired

drs caus. (darsayad) cause to see, show

oi + grah (IX nigrhnad) repress, restrain

ois + gam (I nirgacchad) go away, retire from (abl.)

pari + tus caus. (paritosayad) make satisfied, dp, reward

pari + trai (I paritrSyate) rescue, save

pari + pal (X paripSlayad) guard, preserve, keep intact

pari + bhrams (IV paribhrasyate, p.p. paribhrasta) fall, drip, slip

pari + hr (I pariharati) avoid, shun, resist

prati + as (IV pratyasyad) cast aside

pra + stha (I pradsthate) set forth

bhanj (VII bhanakd, p.p. bhagna) break, shatter

mudrayad denom. stamp, seal

vand (I vandate) venerate, worship

vi + jfia caus. (vijnSpayad) say politely, request, entreat, beg
vi + srj caus. (visarjayati) release, dismiss
vij (X vijayate) fan

sam + stambh (DC samstabhnati, absol. samstabhya) make firm,
sustain, compose
atah from this
aho bata oh alas!
kila apparently, it seems that
ti, tvam abstract noun suffixes; see chapter text
bhoh (in calling) oh! ho! (irreg. sandhi bho before vowels and voiced
consonants)

sampratam now, at once

137

Exercise 10a vyu r i :

r i tPUfywydfflty Ri a# 3vW)a r «nqwRti m

m i 'it: thsit i^i

TT3fm?ra>ifTO^r i\» i iwura : yraifegrft -qrfSNt

5:<RT: 16 ! VoRit R I 1 T3^[

<fle » vjw:rqasn : unrfir roi urastr ^sjrfgft mi #

Mddl d\<|U|iq- — 3Tjjt iihvm W; fiflJTCKlfttn IRI VTOSW

r-xi vylwit!: ^rt sfa vraitraifcw nwsfa

chapter 10

chapter 10

sdt i? $i onr (vibmuiumPiRi Q<wi ipnrt
i*oi T&i ^55 iui ^frunrar ^ usptgt:;,
law: $ ? w l re ri ft w n sq i ifa «tmM>Rw i p<w« ft i r» i V 5 3rmt
Rti yifgfiwwi v rityu i re rei fM ufirf^jnr
trfMapRT^rsr: fipfiwfaRqRrar ft$: ^t: w i *nfir J
*K 4 >oih;k«fuwfi: 19^ i Mifortri TOatihroro;

R* i w ura^nTw %R^ra r w ’j^R ftfasnar jijtf

*ng p qfe a n rem Stfo n*rari) ®

fagnunft n^ 4n

M:

ExerciselOb i Look, Your Excellencies, z What valuai
jewels! 3 She stands gazing. 4 This lady must hurry. 5 Saj
that-see-past-present-and-future have proclaimed [ 3 +dis] a c
flict-(between)-gods-and-demons (to be) imminent. 6 Beii
king has-manyannoyances. 7 [It is from this:] That is
(men) such-as-*you are great. 8 May you have success-in-yo
affairs. 9 Keeping the seal intact, open (it) and show (me).
How devoid-of-discrimination is the barbarian! 11 Restr
[dual] your attack-of-grief and follow me. xz It is preoccu
tion-with-affairs, dear child, that is disturbing us, and not [n
punar] the irritability towards pupils natural-in-a-teacher. 1
Though I am resisting [pari + hr], love-ofPaiicavati seems t
draw me forcibly. 14 How sweet is the sight of these (girls))
1 5 Citralekha, get Urvasi to hurry. 1 6 The gods (do) have tt
fearfulness-of-the-meditations-of-others. 17 The longing
great (men) is of course [high-soaring:] for higher things. 18 1
once let our-forces set forth to-besiege-Kusumapura. i<
(Being) partial-to-*your-merits, I have forgotten tfrj
merits*of*(my)*masten 20 Priyamvadaka, we have no intere
in snakes. So tip him and dismiss him. 21 (It) slipped fro:
your friend’s wife at the ford-of-Sacl as she was worshipping the
water, zz Be careful, dear child. 23 Because (my) mind is en-
grossed-in-affairs and (my) agents numerous, (I had) forgotten!;
24 Noble Jijali, you too go back with-the-servants: Bhagurayana;
alone shall attend me. 25 How surpassingly-lovely the skie)
are, their* wealth-of-beauty-augmented-by-the-autumn-season
2 6 Then, seeing a line of ants emerging from a [eka\
hole*in*therwa'll carryisig^fusg g^hlta]*particles*of*food, - (h$
grasping*thfe*fact [grtetf? 3 rthaj tn2t the chamber haduii
in*it, caused that same becf-thamber to fee. fired. " '

S * ' w«r*. - - * •* , * :

m

Paradigms: kartr, pitr, svasr, mStr

Stems in r

Kb origin the inflexion of stems in r is parallel with that of
Konsonant stems in an. They exhibit a strong stem with vrddhi
fcr guna grade (kartSram, pitaram: cf. rSjSnam); a weakest grade
Ivith the stem in consonant form (kartrS: cf. rSjnS); and a
Ifniddle grade with the stem in vocalic form (kartrbhih: cf.
jabhih <*rijnbhih).

lese stems are nevertheless classified as vowel stems rather
an consonant stems, for two reasons: r has a distinctive vocalic
alternant (r), whereas n does not (since *n became a); and some
rminations have been acquired through the analogy of other
owel stems. Thus by analogy with kSntSn, sucin, etc., an accu-
sative plural in fn (f. -fh); and by analogy with kSntSnSm etc. a
genitive plural in -fnSm. (These formations create the long alter-
nant of syllabic r, which is not part of inherited Indo-European
phonology.)

As with an stems, the nominative singular takes vrddhi and loses
its final consonant: karts, pits. An unusual feature is the geni-
tive singular in uh (or ur). Guna grade of the locative
singular, an alternative form for stems in an, is here obligatory:
kartari.

; Stems in r fall into two main classes, agent nouns and nouns, of
relationship. Agent nouns end in tr (though the t is sometimes
changed by internal sandhi) and are added to a guna grade of the
root, often with connecting i. [The description oJ the infinitive
in Chapter 13 may be taken as a guide to the formation of this

chapter 11

stem, with substitution of tr for turn.] The suffix of agent nouns
is always inflected with vrddhi in die strong grade: netiram
‘leader’ acc. (cf. Latin amdtdrem). A derived feminine is made
with the suffix I: netri ‘she who leads’. Neuter forms on the anal-
ogy of the neuter of sud etc. are theoretically possible but not
very common.

Nouns of relationship normally take gun a in the strong grade,
and may be feminine as well as masculine (in which case the ac-
cusative plural ends in fh); naptr ‘grandson’, bhartr ‘husband’
and svasr ‘sister’ are exceptional in taking vrddhi. Thus pitaram,
mataram, but svasaram (cf. Latin patrem, ni&trem, but sor&rem).
The dual form pitarau means ‘parents’. The suffix ka may be
employed when one of these nouns occurs at the end of a
bahuvrihi compound: mrtatbhartr^ki ‘she whose husband is
dead’.

Like the present participle active, the agent noun does not nor-
mally stand at the end of a determinative compound. But, as
might be expected, whereas the present participle construes with
an accusative, the agent noun construes with an objective
genitive: vam>;3sram2nam raksitit ‘protector of (all) classes and
conditions (of men)’.

The agent noun in tr is not so prominent a feature of Sanskrit as
are nouns in ‘-er’ of English. Other suffixes also denote the
agent. For instance, ‘leader’ may be expressed by nSyakah as
well as by netr. ‘Potter’ (‘pot-maker’) may be translated* by
kumbha-karah or possibly kumbha-krt, but not by kumbha-
kartr. Noun phrases will often be represented by a compound
ending in the suffix in, e.g. upatyakS >ranya-v3sinah ‘dwellers in
the forests of the foothills’. There is, however one distinctive
usage of the agent noun which is worth noting. It may have po-
tential force— ‘someone to do something’. Thus net§ jana
upaisyati ‘a person will come [as guide:} to guide (you)’, or the
following:

tvidrsam punah pratipaks> -oddharane sambhavya: saktim
abhiyoktaram as&dya ksipram enain parityajya tvam ev>
asrayante However having found (someone) like your-
self, with enough power to destroy the enemy, [such as to
attack:] to be their champion, they (will) quickly abandon
him and flock to you

[Periphrastic future. Allied to this potential sense is the use of the
agent noun to form a comparatively rare tense known as the
periphrastic future. Mention of it is included briefly here, since

it will not be introduced into any of the exercises. The agent
noun is used predicatively to refer to future time, with the verb
as in the first and second persons, without in the third person:
kartasmi ‘I am to do’, karts ‘he/she is to do’. Three features
distinguish the tense formally from a straightforward deploy-
ment of the agent noun. Feminine and (in so far as they occur)
neuter subjects do not affect the masculine form of the verb; the
ending -ta remains unchanged in the first and second persons,
even in the dual and plural (karta smah ‘we are to do’; and a
direct object appears in the accusative, not in the genitive
(kumbham bale kartarau ‘the two girls are to make a pot’).

141

The tense is used especially for events fixed for a particular fu-
ture time: often, in fact, the verb is accompanied by an adverb
of time. Thus sva aganta ‘he is to come tomorrow’.]

The suffix tra

Allied to the agent suffix tr is the neuter suffix tra denoting the
instrument used by the agent. Thus patr ‘drinker’, patram ‘[that
which is a drinker’s (when he drinks):] drinking-VesseP.
Similarly, astram ‘[instrument of throwing:] missile’, gatram ‘[in-
strument of movement:] limb’, sastram ‘[instrument of
cutting:] knife’— this last to be carefully distinguished from
sastram ‘[instrument of instruction:] treatise’.

The suffix occurs in other Indo-European languages. Thus
Greek arotron, Latin ardtrum ‘plough’, beside arotir, ardtor
‘ploughman’.

The passive

In origin the passive may be regarded as a specialisation of
the atmanepada of class IV verbs. It is formed with weak
grade of the root, the suffix ya and the thematic atmanepada
endings. [Secondary differentiation occurred, in that passives
retained the accent on the suffix, while class IV verbs shifted the
accent to the root. But this distinction being inoperative in
Classical Sanskrit, forms such as manyate may be interpreted
according to context either as atmanepada (‘thinks’) or as
passive (‘is thought’).] The passive is a present system, com-
prising a present indicative, imperfect, imperative and optative,
and a participle in mdna. [In the future, the perfect, and to some
extent the aorist, atmanepada forms may be used with passive
significance.]

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142

With the following exceptions, the toot generally remains un-
changed before the suffix ya:

Final i and u lengthen: ci, ciyate ‘is heaped’; sru, srOyate ‘is
heard’.

Final r becomes ri after a single consonant, ar after two:
kr, kriyate ‘is done’, but smr, smaryate ‘is remembered’.

Final f becomes tr generally, but Or after a labial: kf, klryate
‘is scattered’; pf, pOryate ‘is filled’.

Roots liable to sampras&rana display it here: vac, ucyate ‘is
told’; grab, grhyate ‘is* taken’. *

Roots liable to lose an ‘infixed’ nasal do so: bhan), bhajyate
‘is broken’, but nand, nandyate ‘is rejoiced in’.

Roots ending in 0 or ai most often convert to I: stha, sthlyate
‘it is stood’. But among several exceptions is jfia, jtoyate ‘is
known’.

When a passive is formed not directly from a root but from a de-
rived stem, the derived stem loses any suffix it may have before
adding the suffix ya. Thus class X verbs and causatives change
ayati to yate: coryate ‘is stolen’; nSyyate ‘is made to lead’;
sthapyate ‘is made to stand’.

The passive is used, as one would expect, when the agent of ac-
tion is unknown or indefinite:

tat ko nu khalv evam nisidhyate then who can it be (whom
I hear) being thus checked?

vatse, uparudhyate me tapovan>-anusthanam dear child, my
duties in the ascetic grove are being hindered (to specify by
you would strike a jarring note)

But the fondness for passive constructions so prominent in past
statements may be observed to a lesser extent in the present also,
so that the natural English translation is often by means of the
active voice:

niyatam anayS samkalpa-nirmitah priya-samigamo >nu-
bhfiyate assuredly she is experiencing an imagined union
with her beloved

Priyamvade, kasy> edam u sir >-anul epan am mmtlavanti ca
nalini-dalani nlyante? Priyamvade, to whom are (you)
taking the uslra ointment and the lotus leaves complete
with fibres?

The notion of ‘logical subject’ (to which, for instance, an absolu-
dve refers) is, of course, applicable here as in past statements:

kim ity avijhaya, vayasya, vaiklavyam avalambyate? why
without knowing (for certain), friend, [is despondency
adopted:] do you grow despondent?

Even commoner than the passive indicative is the passive imper-
ative (usually third person forms only):

anubhfiyat&m tarhi narapati-kopah experience, then, the
king’s anger

Raivataka, senlpatis t&vad ahflya&m Raivataka, summon
the general, will you?

The imperative, and more particularly the passive imperative, is
often best represented in English by ‘must’, ‘should’ , etc., and
may be used in ways the English imperative is not, for instance
in a question:

tat kim anyad anusthiyat&n then what else [must be per-
formed:] do you wish done?

The Sanskrit passive may be used impersonally in the third per-
son singular:

purastad avagamyata eva [from there on, it is quite under-
stood:] I can imagine the rest

datta:pfirv» ety Ssankyate that she has already been given
(in marriage) [it is worried:] is what worries (us)

The neuter demonstrative idam is often added with deictic force
to an impersonal passive: idam gamyate [this is being gone:] ‘see,
(we) are going’.

In the imperative this impersonal passive is extremely
common. Probably the most frequent Sanskrit for ‘listen!’ is
srdyatam [‘let it be heard’]. Similarly, asyat&m or upavisyatdm
‘be seated’.

143

ayi bhinn>iartham abhidhiyatlm ah, speak plainly

sukham sthiyatam remain at your ease

£arngarava, jn&yat&m punah kim etad id Sarngarava, find
out again what it is

The present passive participle follows the same syntax as the
past participle when the latter has a passive sense: it agrees syn-
tactically with the word denoting the object while the agent of

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the action it expresses is put into the instrumental. Like the pres*
ent participle it is used to denote an action which occurs simul-
taneously with the main action:

mah&>:tavi-madhye sltal>:dpac3ram racayatS mahi-surena
parfksyamdnah sil&y&m sayitah ksanam atistham in
the vast forest I remained for a moment lying on a stone
while being examined by the brahmin who applied cooling
remedies

Locative absolute

Analogous to the ablative absolute of Latin (or nominative ab-
solute of English), there is in Sanskrit a locative absolute. So kale
subhe prapte ‘an auspicious time having arrived’. The phrase con-
sists of a small nominal sentence put into the locative, the natural
case to express an attendant circumstance. The predicate may be
a participle (present or past), an adjective or a predicatively used
substantive, and in any of these cases the present participle sant of
the verb as ‘be’ is sometimes added pleonastically. The force of the
construction may usually be represented in English by a temporal
clause introduced by ‘when’ 01 ; where a present participle marks
contemporaneous action, by ‘as’ or ‘while’: tasmin dahyamSne ‘as
it was burning’. An impersonal passive is not uncommon: tatha
musthite ‘[it having been performed thus:] this done’. According
to context there may be a causal or conditional implication as well
as the temporal, while the addition of api adds a concessive force:
aparadhe late >pi ‘though an offence be committed’; evam ukte
>pi ‘despite this being said’. The past active participle may be used
in the locative absolute construction: evam abhihitavati parthive
‘the king having spoken thus’. Present participles are common:
evam samatikr5matsu divasesu ‘the days passing thus’.

The locative absolute is not as prominent a construction in
Sanskrit as its counterpart in Latin. As has already been pointed
out, English absolutes are often to be represented by bahu-
vrihis— e.g. soka-samvigna;m&nasah ‘his mind overwhelmed
with grief’. The locative absolute is better avoided when either
of its elements is easily relatable grammatically to the rest of the
sentence: one says vayasyam drstva ‘after seeing (his) friend’
rather than drste vayasye, if the subject of ‘see’ is also the sub-
ject of the main sentence. We are left with instances like:

bhoh sresthin, Candragupte raj any a:parigrahas challnam
oh merchant, now that Candragupta is king, there is no wel-
come for errors

argrhlte Raksase, lam utkh&tam Nanda-vamsasya? with
Rlksasa not taken, what [has been uprooted:] uprooting
has there been of the Nanda dynasty?

Another factor which militates against the frequency of
locative absolutes as such is the possibility of using an abstract
noun of circumstance in the locative. Thus the previous example
might be rewritten as R2ksasasy> agrahane, or even R3ksasasy>
agrhltatve.

[There also occurs occasionally a genitive absolute. It is used
mosdy with a present participle, sometimes with a verbal adjec-
tive in -in. A typical example would be pasyatas tasya ‘while he
looked on’, the implication usually being ‘looked on powerless
and disregarded’. And there are borderline examples which
might be classified as genitive absolutes but where the genitive
- can equally be seen as having some other function.]

The relative pronoun

; The relative clause in Sanskrit is less frequent than its English
counterpart. The reason is evident enough. In English an adjectival

: relative clause provides a more substantial qualification of a noun
than a single adjective can. In Sanskrit the possibility of compound
adjectives, whether determinative or bahuvrlhi, enables very
lengthy and elaborate qualification without resort to a relative
clause. The use of the Sanskrit relative clause, therefore, tends to
be confined to the expression of restrictive clauses (the kind writ-
ten without commas in English) or, rather less commonly, of ‘af-
terthoughts’.

As in other languages, the relative pronoun agrees with its an-
tecedent in number, gender and (in so far as the fart is mani-
fested) person but appears in the case appropriate to its own
clause. Two features more special to Sanskrit are striking: the
relative clause almost never appears within the main clause but
either before it or after it; and the relative pronoun may be placed
anywhere within its own clause, occasionally even as last word.

When the relative clause is placed before the main clause, its sense
is prevailingly restrictive and the relative pronoun is
normally picked up in the main clause by a demonstrative
pronoun (most often sah) as correlative, usually standing at or near
the beginning of the main clause. Often, as is natural, the an-
tecedent (if expressed at all other than by the demonstrative pro-
noun) appears within the relative clause, usually immediately after
the relative pronoun, and therefore in the same case as the latter:

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Putting these points together one would rearrange an English
sentence such as ‘I have asked the upholsterer who came to look
at the sofa yesterday for his estimate’ rather on the following
lines: ‘to look at the sofa which upholsterer came yesterday, him
I have asked for his estimate’.

yes&m prasSdad idam Ssit, ta eva na sand those by whose
grace this was (so), are no (more)

sarvathi C&nakya; Candraguptayoh puskal&t karanad yo
vislesa utpadyate, sa Styandko bhavad at all events, that
estrangement between CSnakya and Candragupta which
arises from a strong cause, will be lasting

tad atra yat sSmpratam, tatra bhavSn eva pramSnam
what is proper in this* matter in that you are the judge

so

In the following example a relative clause has been used purely
to add restrictive force to a word:

‘etad aryam prcchami’— ‘kumara ya Sryas tam prccha.
vayam idanim an&ryah sarnvrttah’ ‘I ask (your) honourable
(self) this—’ ‘Your Highness, ask one who is honourable.
[We:] I am now become without honour’

The addition of kas cit to the relative gives an indefinite sense—
‘whoever, whatever’:

yah kas dd garbha-dohado >sy3 bhavad, so >vasyam acitan
rnSnayitavyah any [longing of the womb:] pregnant fancy
that she gets, [necessarily after not long must be hon-
oured:] (you) must be sure to satisfy at once

When the relative clause follows the main clause, this may be a
mere reversal of the above pattern (but with the antecedent re-
maining within the main clause):

tayS gavS kim kriyate, ya na dogdhri, na garbhinl? what is
(to be) done with a cow which is neither a yielder of milk
nor productive of calves?

(Note that in general statements in English the antecedent of a
restrictive clause may be qualified equally well by ‘the’/ ‘that’ or
by ‘a’, the last having the sense of ‘any’.)

When the main clause stands first, the correlative pronoun
is often esah or ayam instead of sah. And if the main clause
consists of no more than a word or two, the correlative is some-
times omitted:

kriyate yad esS kathayad (we) are doing what she says

If the antecedent is indefinite or negative, it is naturally not
qualified by a demonstrative pronoun:

147

Vijayasena, apy asti Vindhyaketor apatyam yatr> asya
paritosasya phalam darsay&mi? Vijayasena, has
Vindhyaketu (any) offspring towards whom [yatra = yas-
min] I (may) show [fruit:] a token of [this:] my satisfaction?

In this following position, on the other hand, the relative clause
may also be added to an already complete sentence as
an additional statement. Here especially there is no need for
a preceding demonstrative, and the force of the relative is
roughly that of ‘and* plus a demonstrative pronoun, or of ‘one
who/which’.

ath> edam 2rabhyate mitrabhedam nSma prathamam
tan tram, yasy> ayam Sdyah slokah now here begins the
first chapter called Separation of Friends, of which [= and
of it] the following is the initial stanza

asty atra nagary 2m mah2:smas2na-pradese Kar2l2 n3ma
Camund2 . . . y2 kila vividha:jIv>-opah2ra;priy» eti
s2hasik2n2m prav3dah there is in the city in the area of the
great burning-ground (an image of) the Fierce Goddess,
named Karate— one who, it seems, is fond of the sacrifice
of living creatures of various kinds: so (runs) the report of
adventurous (people)

Another very common variety of following relative clause also
deserves mention. It is one which gives the reason for the pre-
ceding statement. It may be paraphrased by ‘for’ or ‘in that’ with
a pronoun, and its natural equivalent in English is often an in-
finitive:

aho a:s3dhu:darsi tatrabhavan Kanvo, ya im3m valkala-
dharane niyuhkte oh, His Honour Kanva is not right-see-
ing [who puts her:] to put her to wearing a bark-dress

krtajpunya eva Nandano, yah priy2m Idrsim kamayisyate
Nandana’s really lucky [who will love:] to lie going to love
such a sweetheart

vayam ev> atra nanu socy§, ye Nanda-kula-vin2se> pi jlvitum
; i^&amhh, we rather fine the,, ones to .be pitied, who even
. ^ the 2testtucd|^pt^iK)^« .df Nanda seek tc( live (on)
, (]^9te^lfi'absi^a natm4& analterng&tve to a To&ttfyejdb.
stitute such ab'imqip »pifladi<b4ad£) ’ ^ .

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Analysis of bahuvrThis

An example may now be given of the way analysis of bahuvrlhis
can be made in Sanskrit glosses, taking advantage of the fact
that relative clauses may precede their antecedent and that the
relative pronoun may stand at the end of its clause. The two
parts of the compound are resolved into a nominal sentence or
phrase; the relative pronoun indicates the case-relationship with
the substantive that is being qualified; and finally the demon-
strative recalls the inflexional termination of the original com-
pound. So viditaiv&rttebhyah paurebhyah ‘from the citizens who
had learnt the news’ becomes

vidita vartta yais tebhyah paurebhyah by whom the news
was learnt, from those citizens

Pronouns and pronominal adverbs

Now that a fair number of adverbial and other pronominal
forms have been encountered in the exercises, it is worth draw-
ing attention to relationships between them.

The list in Table ii.i, and particularly the fourth column, is in-
tended to be illustrative, not exhaustive. It could be extended ei-
ther vertically or horizontally. Most pronominal adjectives have
at least some adverbial forms— thus anyatra ‘else where’, ekada
‘at one time’, sarvatha ‘in every way*.

Attributively used adverbs

The adverbs of ‘place where and place from where’ listed in the
second and third lines of Table ii.i have an obvious affinity of
meaning with the locative and ablative cases of the correspon-
ding pronouns— ‘where?’ means ‘at, in or on what (place)?’;
‘from where?’ means ‘from what (place)?’. In fact, to talk of ad-
verbs of place in Sanskrit is somewhat misleading, since their
reference may be as wide as that of the corresponding pronom-
inal cases, extending to people and things as well as places. Thus
a common meaning of tatra at the beginning of a sentence is
‘among those (people or things just mentioned)’: e.g. tatra ken>
apy uktam ‘[among them someone:] one of them said’.

Similarly, by a common idiom these adverbs may be used as at-
tributive adjectives qualifying substantives in the locative or (ap-
parently rather less frequently) the ablative case. So atra vane

Table 11.1

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150

does not mean ‘here in the forest’ but is synonymous with
asmin vane ‘in this forest’. Other examples of the usage are:

tatra kale at that time

atr> an tare at this juncture

kutas rid vyanjanlt from some indication

atra or atra vastuni in this matter

iha or iha loke in this world

The suffix tah

m

It will be noticed that this suffix is used to form all the adverbs
with ablative sense. In fact, it may also be added to the first and
second person pronouns as a commoner alternative to the
theoretical ablative forms: one usually says mattah rather than
mat for ‘from me’ and so on.

The sense of the suffix is not always strictly ablative: itah as well
as meaning ‘from here’ is common in the sense of ‘over We’ or
‘in this direction’. Unlike other adverbial suffixes, tah is com-
bined with a wide range of nouns as well as pronouns and con-
verts them to adverbs with some such sense as well as pronouns
and converts them to adverbs with some such sense as ‘in ac-
cordance with’ or ‘in respect of’. The suffix often alternates not
only with the ablative case but also with other cases, particularly
the instrumental:

samksepah abridgement samksepena, samksepat or samk-
sepatah in brief

vistarah expansion vistarena, vistarSt or vistaratah in detail

prasahgah occasion prasangena, prasangSt or prasahgatah
incidentally, in passing

api jnSyante nima tah? do (you) know them by name?

tau ca bhagavata V&lmlkina dhatrl-karma vastu tah parigrhya
positau pariraksitau ca and the revered Valmiki, adopt-
ing [as to substance:] in effect the role of a foster-mother
reared and looked after the two of them

Numerals

Complicated numerals are too infrequent in ordinary texts to
justify the devoting of much space to them in an elementary
primer. It is, however worth committing to memory the list
of numerals at the back of the book. From i to 4 the cardinal

numerals agree with the substantive they qualify in number, CTT
gender and case; from 5 to 19, in number and case, but with 1
only one form for all genders; from zo onwards, in case only.

Thus dsrbhir nadlbhih ‘with three rivers’, sodasabhir nadlbhih
•with sixteen rivers’, satena nadlbhih ‘with a hundred rivers’.

From zo onwards the numbers are, in fact, collective nouns, and
alternatively therefore the qualified substantive may be put in
the genitive plural: satena nadft&m ‘with a hundred [of] rivers’.

Ch; again, a determinative compound may be made: nadi-satena
Vith [a river-century:] a hundred rivers’.

Compounds with collective nouns (‘pair’, ‘triad’, etc.) may also
be used to express the smallest numbers. A dual form is very
often avoided by using one of the many words for ‘pair’: go-
dvayam, go-yugam, go-mi thunam, etc. ‘[cow-pair:] two cows’.

All the numerals may be compounded attributively in their stem
form: dvijpada ‘two-footed’, sata;mukha ‘having a hundred
mouths’, dasa:kumHra-caritam ‘the story of the ten princes’.

Concord

The principle that a predicate should agree with its subject is
modified in Sanskrit when the subject consists of a number of
co-ordinated items. In such cases there is a tendency for the
predicate to agree with the nearest item. This happens regularly
when the verb precedes the subject.

tatah pravisaty Arundhatl Kausalyi kancukl ca then enter
Arundhati, Kausalya and the chamberlain (not pravisanti)

tad idam tSvad grhyat&m dbharanam dhanus ca so just take
this cfecoration and (this) bow (not grhyetam)

prabhavati pi&yasah kum&rlnam janayitS daivam ca (what)
generally governs girls (is) their father and their fate (not
prabhavatah)

Nominative with iti

Where in English we would quote a word such as a proper name
and isolate it between inverted commas, a Sanskrit word may be
isolated by iti and it is then normally put in the nominative case:
so ‘RSma’ iti visrutah ‘known as “Rama”’.

‘asva’ iti pasu-samamnSye s&mgr&mike ca pathyate ‘horse’ is
mentioned in the list of sacrifical animals, and in the
military (list)

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152

matra

The word m&tr& ‘measure’ is used at the end of a bahuvrl]
compound in the sense of ‘sharing the size of’ both litera
(angustha- matra ‘thumb-sized’, khadyota-matra ‘no biggei|
than a firefly’) and in the sense of ‘fully measured by, beid
nothing more than’, and so ‘mere’ or ‘merely’, ‘only’. In th
sense it may form a neuter substantive: jala - matram ‘only water’,]
pravada-matram ‘mere talk’.

Especially striking is the combination of this matra with a past]
participle to express ‘as soon as’: thus drstarmatra ‘no more
than seen, as soon as seen’.

pravista-matren> aiva sayana-grham duratmana CSnakya:-
hataken> avafoldtam the very moment he entered, the evil
and accursed Canakya examined the sleeping quarters

Vocabulary

angam limb (the four ‘limbs’
of an army are elephants,
chariots, cavalry and
infantry)

adhikarah authority, office
adhisthatr m. superintending, at
the head of

antevasin [resident] disciple
apanodanam driving away
abhidhanam statement; appella-
tion, name

abhiprSyah intention, inclination
abhivyakta manifest, visible
abhlsu m. rein, bridle
arth>-otsargah expenditure [of
money]

ardhah half (portion)
alamkaranam ornament
atmajah son

anuyatrikah escort to (gen.)
ista:janah the loved one
ucita suitable, appropriate
utsavah festival

kalatram (N.B. gender) wife
kalika bud
Kusah pr. n.
garbhah womb
catur (stem form) four
Candraketu m„ pr. n.
candrika moonlight
c3pa m./n. bow
atta-vitti f. [activity of mind:]
mental process, thought
cQtah mango-tree
janaki pr. n.
tarkah conjecture
trayam triad (of) (at end of cpd.

expresses ‘three’)
darah m. pi. (N.B. number and
gender) wife
divya celestial
dipika lamp
duskara difficult
[to do]

duhitr f. daughter
dvitiya second, another

dbflrtah rogue
dhairyam firmness
oibandhanam bond
panSyitr m. hawker
para prott. adj. other, another
jfarvatesvarah pr. n.
pSni m. hand
paunaruktam redundancy
pracalita in motion
prabhu m. master
pramadah mishap
pravrtti f. news
prasSdah favour
prto^h m. pi [breaths:] life
prSrthayitr m. suitor
Priyamvadakah pr.n.
bhangah breaking; plucking
(of buds); dispersal
(of crowd)

bhagah division, portion, tithe
bhratr m. brother
madhu m. (season or first
month of) spring
Mandarika pr. n.
mahlnt great, vast, numerous
mah&mamsam human flesh
matr f. mother
matra mere, only (see
chapter)

manusah human being, mortal
mamaklna my
Malatl pr. n.
mflrkha foolish; m. fool
medhya fit for sacrifice,
sacrificial

yamaja twin[-bom]

^_¥sfj (VI atisrjstti) bestow'

ami + mantr (X anumaatrayaie)

yStra procession
ySdrla (f. i) relative adj. of
which kind, such as, just as
raksitr m. guard
ratnam jewel
rajyam kingdom
rSsi m. heap

lajja-kara(/l I ) embarrassing
Lavah pr. n.
labhah profit
vane-carah forest-dweller
vallabhah sweetheart
Vasumdhara pr. n.
vastu n. thing, matter; subject-
matter

Vamadevah pr. n.

Valmiki m. pr. n.
vikretr m. vendor
victtra variegated, various
visesana:padam [distinguishing
word:] epithet
Vairodhakah pr. n.

Vaihlnari m., pr. n.
satam a hundred
s as tram treatise, law-book
slaghya laudable, virtuous
samvyavaharah transaction
samkulam throng
sampradayah tradition
-sambhava ifc. arising from,
offspring of
sahasram a thousand
sadhanam army
suvarnah gold; gold piece
snigdha affectionate
hastah hand

send (someone^ after something),.

... ** ~ ‘ ' 4 - -* *

consecrate with mantras, bless

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154

ami + i (II anveti) follow, attend
anu + is (I anvesate) look foq search

abhi + nand (I abhinandati) rejoice in, prize; greet with enthusiasm

ava + ip ( V avSpnoti) obtain, acquire

ava + Iks (aveksate) watch, watch over

i + rabh (I hrabhate) undertake, begin

Us (II 3ste) sit, stay, remain; josam 3s remain silent

3 + hve (I Shvayati pass. Shfiyate) summon, call

ih (I ihate) long, foi; desire

upa + kip earn, (upakalpayati) equip; assign

upa + nl (I upanayati) bring

kri (IX krinSti) buy

jn3 (EX )3n3ti) know, learn, find out

d3 (III dadad) give

nis + vap (I nirvapati) sprinkle, offer; donate
ni + vr cans. (niv3rayad) ward off, drive off
ni + sidh (I nisedhati) prohibit, cancel
pari + tyaj (I parityajad) leave, abandon
pari raks (I pariraksati) protea, save, spare
pra + ci (V pracinoti) accumulate (the pass, corresponds to the
English intrans.)

prati + sru (V pratisrnoti) promise
raks (I raksati) protea

vi + ghat (I vighatate, p. p. vighatita) become separated

vi + muc (VI vimuncati) release, loose

vi + sram (IV visr3myati) rest, cease, take a rest

vi + srj (VI visrjati) discharge, release

vi + iks (I viksate) discern, spy

vi + ava + hr (I vyavaharati) aa, behave towards (loc.)

sam + r caus. (samarpayati) hand over

sam + bhfl caus. (sambh3vayati) conceive, imagine

stu (II stauri) praise

an;antaram [without interval:}
immediately
ayi ha!

ekad3 at one time, once
kim ca moreover
cirasya after a long time
tathS in that way, thus, so
prasahgatah in passing

madhySt from the middle of,
from among
mrs3 vainly
vihiya [‘having left
behind’:]
beyond ( acc .)
sarvathS in every way,
altoeethen totally

Exercise 11a "W 9>u<S5fiRH \\ i <wl 'iisgiflfc vh-

r ig i ftiil mafii gq^fa^rfr m

fe<wrar iCm^ m nRjft% , 9?!5i ^^ifiiaifaswnRt,
i$i ftfir£ sft HfFS^ ^raf^ra>nqpiR^ io i ^fnsp^mrw
PIT: I C I <W«^fihlPrt ^WTVlfl R I il^KRIPPn) sfiTOW: Ro |
far ^aifir^s: a^Nrevisf ^rhra»w ^efnfir^rfl ti^ief: im • ^
gifficAww m pr ca i r ? i a»: it miy-wl ngMuri-j-
fean, Rgi ftrtsgg unmr arr %ht a#a ?fa r*i artf
^aamrHit ^Nnf^am af g^ifo p rc r g«R rm fo*w*rwR 15a
ngreifarf : flca^ r$i at: ^fea, atf*r rreftaat ff&qagmmi amn-.

I gfcl aaafa a^a^ *3uwr gf^aw^tepa ^HafftH, R4 1 aw faanfaiaft
sfa ftaa aa r^ 1 aaarai^ftt* atpfHtarfaaV ^ftvippWwft ■•uwsw
r« 1 ai^rit sa fliyPi Rtif^ssaw^aigaf^iat^at
s«:i aarauferara a myn ^ mw Tf$mrT: 1 ^amftm iai
H y» M n waa^^<aw^a^HaraM^<yaiqai(^a^ s^nfgs: r? i
gar ya -q&w ^yreft sffir afam q Bifoy g re : liiai^uw fw<d aymfa
iag 1 aw aw r a<n ai <afv< F H r fiq ft aqqift &m\ : 1a» yiftfft aaftrafta
a#r: r* 1 aifw aia^ar pgfa: asfaa igr aar wunfira n: $ant
■aawRwaraaftawaaat^jiftaftaanw iiami

155

*

Exercise 11b Translate all present actives (except in 14, 18
and 24) and all imperatives by means of the passive.

1 Give him an answer: 2 We are twin brothers. 3 Masters do
not summon (those) holding- [vant] • office without-a • purpose. 4
Stop right here. 5 Give (me) one [from among:] of those
three-ornaments which (I) bought. 6 Loose the reins. 7 Why
speak of ‘firmness’? 8 Hurry, my good fellows, hurry. 9 The
moonlight (being) visible, what point in a redundancy-of-lamps?
10 Latavya, call Urvasl. 11 Oh, this is the decoration which I
removed from my-own-person and sent to Raksasa. 12 Ha,
dear child [/:]! (You) are thus praising yourself. 13 Reward the
vendor and accept it. 14 Your Excellency, have (you) anyone
who is going to Kusumapura or coming from there? 15 Have
him come in. 16 Why vainly [search with conjecture:] specu-
late? 17 ‘Minister’ is now an embarrassing epithet. 18 Alas, I
am quite deluded to behave towards this forest-dweller (in a way
[n. sg.]) appropriate-to-my-friend-Makaranda. 19 Hand over
Raksasa’s family— enjoy for a long time (to come) the-king’s-
favour with-its-various-advantages. 20 Protect, at the cost of

[simply use instr.] another’s-wife, your own wife and your life. i
2i This is the son-of-KHmandakl’s-friend, Madhava, (here), to !
hawk human flesh. 22 (As) escort to the disciples by whose \
hand (he) has sent that book to Bharata ’s-hermitage, (he) has :
sent our brother bow-in*hand [c 5 pa: pani] to-drive-away-
mishap. 23 And she having immediately become separated
(from me) by die throng of numerous [mahant] townsfolk ;
in-motion-upon-the-dispersal-of-the-procession, I came (here)'.
24 Fool, these ascetics donate a quite different tithe, one which
is prized beyond even heaps*of*jewels. 25 Thus, imagining’
[use p.p.]-by-his-own inclinations-the-thoughts-of-the-loved-one,
the suitor is deceived.

IO

Paradigms: Present of classes II, V and VIII

Athematic presents

The four present classes so far dealt with (I, IV, VI and X) are the
thematic classes: they differ from each other only in the way in
which the stem is formed from the root, for the stem thus formed
always ends in (or: is linked to the endings by) the
thematic vowel a. The other six classes are comparable with the
nominal consonant stems, and their inflexion is of far greater dif-
ficulty and variety mainly because the stem is in direct contact
(collision may sometimes seem a better word) with the personal
endings. One may distinguish practically between the lesser com-
plications of those classes where the stem ends in a suffix (V, Vm,
IX) and the greater complications of those where the final letter
of the stem is also the final letter of the actual root (II, HI, VQ).

In class II, the root class, the stem consists simply of the root it-
self. This generally strengthens to gun a in the strong grade and
remains unchanged in the weak grade. In this and all other
athematic classes, the strong grade appears in the whole of the
singular parasmaipada both present and imperfect, in the third
person singular parasmaipada of the imperative, and in all first
person forms of the imperative, while two noteworthy features
of the personal terminations of athematic verbs are the absence
of n in the third person plural atmanepada present, imperfect
and imperative, and the addition of the suffix dhi (after conso-
nants) or hi (after vowels) in the second person singular imper-
ative parasmaipada.

The conjugation of the commonest class II root, as ‘be’, has
already been introduced. The inflexion of i ‘go’ is typical of a
root ending in a vowel: among sandhi changes one may note

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158

ro

retroflexion of s (esi ‘you go’) and consonantalisation of i (yantLs
‘they go’). The inflexion of dvis ‘hate’ illustrates some of thej

sandhis of final s: thus s + s = ks, s + dh = ddh.

• • • ' • • • i

The strong grade of han ‘kill’ is han: so hand ‘he kills’,:

which looks misleadingly like a plural form. The weak grade is
also stated as han, but it appears as ha before t/th and as ghn be-
fore a: hatha ‘you kill’; ghnanti ‘they kill’. The second person
singular imperative is jahi. j;

One root retains the strong grade throughout: si, sete ‘he lies’.
Some, though classed as root verbs, add the suffix i before some
terminations: rud, roditi ‘he weeps’, brQ ‘speak’ adds 1 in the
strong forms before a consonant: bravltu ‘let him speak’.

Class V verbs add the suffix nu before the terminations, and this
strengthens to no in the strong grade. The root sru ‘hear’ forms
a present stem srnu/srno (on the basis of a more primitive form
of the root, sr): srnosi ‘you hear’. Roots ending in a vowel (a) do
not take the suffix hi in the second person singular imperative,
(b) may optionally reduce nu to n before v and m: srnu ‘listen’;
sraumah or srnmah ‘we hear’. Roots ending in a consonant (a)
must adil hi in the imperative, (b) must change nu to nuv before
vowels: apnuhi ‘obtain’; ipnuvanti ‘they obtain’.

Class Vm verbs add the suffix u, strengthening to o. Of the eight
verbs in this class, seven have roots ending in n and behave in the
same way as class V roots ending in vowels, as described above:
tan, tanoti ‘he extends’; tanuvah or tanvah *we two extend’. The
eighth verb is the common kr ‘clo’. The strong stem is karo, the
weak kuru, but this latter must appear as kur before v, m and y.
The second person singular imperative parasmaipada is kuru.

The formation of the present participles of athematics is
mentioned in Chapter io. Remember that the Stmanepada par-
ticiple is in -§na, not -amina. The present participle of as ‘stay’
is anomalous, aslna.

Gerundives

The gerundive (sometimes called the future passive participle) is
a verbal adjective with passive sense expressing such notions as
obligation or necessity— ‘(requiring) to be done’ etc. It may be
formed in a number of alternative ways, by the addition to the
root of any of three suffixes: ya, aniya, tavya.

The gerundive in ya is the most ancient of the three and shows
the greatest variety of formation. In general, the following are

r

the changes undergone by the root before this suffix. Final a be-
comes e: da, deya ‘to be given’. Final i/I strengthens to e: ni, neya
*to be led’. Final u/fl strengthens to av or to av: sru, sravya or
’sravya ‘to be heard’. Final r/f strengthens to ar: kr, karya ‘to be
f done’. FoUowed by a single consonant, medial i/u becomes e/o,
j medial r is unchanged, medial a sometimes remains and some-
| times strengthens to a: sue, socya ‘to be mourned for’; bhid,
; bhedya ‘to be split’; drs, drsya ‘to be seen’; gam, gamya ‘to be
I gone to’; but vac, vacya ‘to be spoken’.

: As well as exceptions to the above, there are a number of alter-
native forms: most notably, final i/u/r may remain unstrength-
ened and add a connecting t: so srutya besides sravya and sravya,
krtya besides karya.

Derivative stems drop aya before adding ya: vamya ‘to be de-
scribed’. Gerundives in ya from causatives are, however, little
found, since they would not usually be distinguishable from the
gerundive of the simple verb.

The suffix anlya is an adjectival extension of the suffix ana,
which is most commonly used to form neuter action nouns (see
Chapter 8). The root almost always appears in the guna grade,
being strengthened to the same extent as in forming class I pres-
ents: kr, karaniya ‘to be done’; nind, nindanlya ‘blameworthy’.
Derivative stems again drop aya. A number of causative forms
are found, e.g. bh&vamya ‘to be caused to be’.

The suffix tavya is an adjectival extension of another suffix, this
time of the obsolete verbal noun in tu on which the
infinitive and the absolutive are based. This type of gerundive
may in fact be formed by substituting tavya for the turn of the
infinitive, and so the remarks in Chapter 13 (pp. 171-4) on the
formation of the infinitive should now be studied and the list of
principal parts of verbs consulted. A point to note particularly is
that, as in the infinitive, derivative stems retain the suffix ay:
from vid ‘know’, veditavya ‘to be known’ but vedayitavya ‘to be
made known’. Causatives form gerundives of this type freely.

As was mentioned in Chapter 8, the prefixes su and dus
(as also isat ‘slightly’) combine not with a gerundive but with a
verbal noun in a: dun jaya ‘difficult to conquer’ etc.

Gerundives may be used predicatively in sentences expressing
obligation or necessity: aham bhavadbhir drastavyah ‘I am to be
seen by you’. As with past participles, a passive is often best
translated by an active, and so the above may be represented by
‘you must see me’. In English, in fact, it is often appropriate to

159

DO

chapter 12

translate a gerundive as an imperative, and so we may also say
‘(come and) see me’.

While there is a considerable overlap between the three types of
gerundive, certain differences of usage can be distinguished. The
types in ya and anlya, and particularly the former, tend to have a
wider, more characterising sense: thus amirvarnyam khalu para-
kalatram ‘one ought not of course to gaze upon the wife of a
stranger’— whereas ‘don’t look at her’ would probably be ex-
pressed by na drastavya. These forms are thus far more likely than
the tavya form to be used as simple adjectives— e.g. slaghya
‘praiseworthy’, socanlya ‘lamentable’. They are particularly used
after verbs with prefixes; they may also combine with the negative
prefix a, and even appear to a limited extent at the end of deter-
minative compounds: e.g. anantaradcaraniya ‘to be done immedi-
ately’. The implication of necessity may be entirely lost in the
more general notion of potentiality: ‘such as to be’, and therefore
‘capable of being’. The meaning then comes close to that of the
past participle but is normally to be distinguished by the absence
of any factual implication: drsta ‘(actually) seen’, but drsya ‘visi-
ble’ and prayatna-preksaniya ‘to be discerned with difficulty’.

ari-balam ca vihata:vidhvastam stri;b&la-harya:sastram
vartate and the enemy’s forces’, broken and shattered, are
in a state where their weapons [are takeable:] could be
taken by women or children

The gerundive in tavya, on the other hand, while it can be used
in both general and particular statements and with prefixed and
unprefixed verbs, seldom loses the notion of necessity and is nor-
mally used as the predicate of a sentence rather than as an at-
tributive adjective. (It may appear as the predicate of a locative
absolute: thus durga-samskira arabdhavye ‘(at a time) when for-
tifications ought to be undertaken’.) It should not be used at the
end of a nominal compound or in combination with the prefix a.

A strictly passive sense is more universally prevalent in
gerundives than in past participles, even for verbs normally in-
transitive. Thus gamya, gamaniya and gantavya may all mean
‘(requiring) to be gone to'. However a gerundive construction
can be given to an essentially intransitive verb by means of the
impersonal passive:

nanu Lavangike, KhmandakyS >pi na khalv atah param . . .
jlvitavyam why Lavangika, Kamandaki too shall cer-
tainly not live any longer (lit. it is not to be lived by
Kamandaki etc.)

Particularly noteworthy, as defying literal translation into
English, is the frequent impersonal use of the gerundive of bhG
‘be’. The complement of the verb like the logical subject itself
must be put in the instrumental case:

tad bhagavati Godavari, tvaya tatra s>_5vadhanaya bhavi-
tavyam so venerable Godavari, you must be watchful in
the matter

visrantena bhavata mam> anyasminn amaySse karmani
sahayena bhavitavyam when rested, you must be my
companion in another task, which is not a strenuous one

This particular gerundive is often used to mark an inference:

vyaktam ahitundika_- cchadmana Viradhagupten> anena
bhavitavyam this (person) must obviously be Viradh-
agupta disguised as a snake-charmer

aye dhira :pras3ntah svarah— tat tapasvibhir bhavitavyam
such strong, calm tones! It must then be ascetics (I can hear)

Similarly, in an inference about a past event, evam anaya
prastavyam ‘[thus:] this is what she must have asked’.

161

ind

kr and compounds of kr and bhO

The verb kr may be translated by ‘do’ or ‘make’ in English:
ldm kurmah? ‘what shall we do?’; kumbham karoti ‘he is
making a pot’. With an abstract noun in the accusative it has the
effect of creating a more complex verb: vandanlm karoti ‘makes
salutation, salutes’; asv&ana-matram karoti ‘makes mere
consolation, merely consoles’. Like ‘make’ in English, it may
also be used with an accusative and a predicative adjective to
give causative sense: tv am a:k3mam karomi ‘I’ll [make you
one-whose-desires-are-not:] frustrate you’.

tat kim atra vipine priy5-vartt»-aharam karomi? what
then in this forest shall I make a carrier of news to my
beloved?

In this sense of ‘turn into’, however; there is an alternative con-
struction. One may compound the predicative adjective with the
verb by changing the a of the adjective’s stem to I and adding it
directly to the front of kr: so tv3m a: kamam karomi might ap-
pear instead as tv 5m akamlkaromi (if we wish to preserve the
punctuation we may write a:l&mi~karomi). The rule is that
nouns change final a, a, i or in to I and final u to & (as in laghu

chapter 12

‘light’, lagh&kr ‘lighten’), while most other stems would appear
without change; but the formation is far commoner with nouns
in a than with any others. Substantives are as freely used as
adjectives in this construction, e.g. angi~karoti ‘turns into a
limb, subordinates’.

The same construction is found with the verb bhfk in the sense of
‘become’, e.g. angi~bh&ta ‘become a limb, subordinated’. This is
distinct in meaning from the karmadharaya anga:bh&ta ‘being a
limb, subordinate’.

In this way we have pairs of transitive and intransitive denomi-
native verbs. Mention was made in Chapter 9 of the
denominative pair sithilayati ‘slackens ( trans .)’ and sithillyate
‘slackens ( intrans .)’. With the same meanings we may form
sithill~karoti and sithill~bhavati.

This construction forms a small exception to the general
principle in Sanskrit that nouns may compound with each other
but not with finite verbs (and even this construction occurs most
commonly of all in non-finite forms, in particular in the past
participle).

In a similar way there are a number of adverbs and other non-
verbal forms which may be combined with kr and bhQ (and to a
limited extent also with dha ‘put’ and as ‘be’). So from the Vedic
adverb avis ‘openly’, Svis~kr ‘reveal’, avir~bhO ‘become appar-
ent’. Similarly, from tiras ‘secretly’, tiras~kr ‘conceal’, tiro~bhfi
‘vanish’. It is kr which combines with the widest variety of such
forms. Among other examples one might mention alamkaroti
‘ornaments’, namaskaroti ‘pays homage to’, satkaroti ‘does ho-
nour to’.

In all such compounds the absolutive used should be the com-
pound form in ya.

Relative adverbs

The tendency of pronominal adverbs to act as extensions of the
case system was mentioned in the previous chapter— e.g.
atra vane =asmin vane ‘in this forest’. Relative adverbs used in
this way are simple extensions therefore of the relative pronoun.
This is often true of yatra ‘where, in which’ and yatah ‘from
where, from which!. Thus tad' etat Pr2c.etas>-adhyusk^m
aranyam, yatra kila devi pariryaktSt ‘this is tiae forest mhabged^
by Pjracetas^,. in which [or where};.! befieye, Her Majesty'
aband^ed’.. biig. may $ub$titi% 4 rasmhi for yafra m. the aBoVe^
seiiien& Wkfiout affecting the'fnt&h'ing. '

In their characteristic use, however relative adverbs have
simply a more limited scope than the relative pronoun, in that
the correlative adverb plays the same role in the main clause as
the relative adverb in the relative clause (as when relative and
correlative pronoun are in the same case): so yada . . . tada ‘at
which time, ... at that time’, yatha . . . tatha ‘in which way —
in that way’, etc. Thus the relative clause and the main clause
share a common feature: in ‘where the rain falls, there the plants
grow’, the falling of the rain and the growing of plants are given
a common location; if one substituted ‘when . . . then’, they
would be given a common time.

The general feature of adverbial relative clauses are those al-
ready described for other relative clauses. The correlative adverb
will correspond in function to its relative, but there may be a
choice of forms. For instance, the correlative of yatha ‘as’ may
equally well be either tatha or evam ‘so, thus’:

163

&

m

1

10

kirn nu khalu yatha vayam asyam, evam iyam apy asman prati
syat? could she for her part possibly [be:] feel towards us
as we (do) towards her?

‘kim tu katham asmabhir upagantavya iti sampradharayami’—
‘yath» aiva gurus tath» opasadanena ‘but I am wondering
in what way we ought to approach him’— ‘with the same re-
spectful salutation as (one would) one’s preceptor’

A particular use of yatha is in inferences— ‘from the way that’:

yath » on_mukham alokayati, tatha vyaktam ‘pravas> otsuka:
manasa maya na drst»’ ety aha from the way he gazes up,
he is obviously saying, ‘with my mind eager for the jour-
ney, I didn’t see her’

The most usual correlative of yada ‘when’ is tada ‘then’, but oth-
ers such as tatah ‘thereupon’ and atha ‘hereat’ are also found.
Even if tada itself is used, the relation of the two clauses is often
one of sequence rather than of strict contemporaneity. Temporal
clauses in narrative tend to be rather long, and for the usual rea-
son that short clauses may be expressed in other ways in
Sanskrit. Because it is not necessary for a relative pronoun or ad-
verb to stand at the beginning of its clause, it is quite possible for
the writer or speaker to be well launched on his sentence before
deciding to subordinate it as a relative clause:

tatah ‘kutas taw ayam mahSn dhan>-5gama?’ id prcchyamano
yadl vSkya-bhedam akul am akathayat, tada Canakya:hatak>-
adesad vicitrena vadhena vySpaditah then, when on being

asked “where did your great accession of wealth (come)
from?’ he told a confused variety of stories, he was by order
of the accursed Canakya [killed by a variegated death:] put
to death by torture

The word ySva t “while’ deserves comment. It is in origin the ad-
verbially used neuter singular of the relative pronoun ySvant ‘as
much . . . as’, whose use is illustrated by

y3v3n artha udapine sarvatah samplutuodake,
tavan sarvesu vedesu brShmanasya vijinatah

as much point as (there is) in a water-tank when it has water
flooding all round it, so much (is there) in all the Vedas for
a brahmin who discerns [gen. sg. pres. part, of vijfia]

yavat thus means in origin ‘for all the time that, for as long as’,
and this is the meaning which it has in forming ‘prepositional’
compounds similar to those made with yatha described in
Chapter 9 , where it may represent the same notion as the
English ‘throughout’: e.g. yavad_r3jyam ‘throughout the reign’,
yavad_adhyayanam ‘throughout the (period of) study’. As a
conjunction yavat may mean ‘during all or some of the time that’
and thus correspond to “while’:

yavat ptanimi, tavad asya . . . madana-samtapasya pradkriyam
kriyarnknam icdbami I want a remedy to be contrived for
this love-torment while I am (still) breathing

Vijaye, muhOrtam nibhrta: pada-samc5ra bhava, yivad asya
parah:mukhasy> aiva panibhyam nayane nirunadhmi
Vijaya, keep your footsteps quiet for a moment, while I
cover his eyes with my hands as he is looking the other way

upaslesaya ratham ySvad arohami bring up the chariot
while I get in

In the last two examples the idea of purpose is present, and the
notion of ‘while’ shades into that of ‘until’, which is
another meaning of yavat. In this latter sense it is often but not
necessarily construed with the future tense:

pratiksasva kani rid dinini, ylvad iyam . . . prakrtav eva
sthasyad wait a few days, until she [shall abkfe in her
actual nature:] comes to her senses

tat sarvatha >smat sthanad anyat sthanam asrayami yavad
asya maya vijhatam cikirsitam so at all events I’ll go
from this place to another until I have found out his
intendons [p.p. in the sense of a (future) perfect ]

‘Until, up to’ is also the usual meaning of y3vat when it is a
preposition governing (and following) a noun in the accusative:
e.g. sflry>-ddayam ySvat ‘until sunrise’. This contrasts with the
meaning ‘throughout’ which it usually has in prepositional com-
pounds. (However the difference will normally also be conveyed
by the presence, on the one hand, of a word more naturally im-
plying duration, such as ‘life’, or, on the other; of one more nat-
urally implying an event, such as ‘arrival’.)

Finally, yivat with a negative may be translated ‘before’ (al-
though there are other ways of expressing this notion, such as the
use of prak or pOrvam with the ablative of an abstract norm):

. . . na ySvad dyati, tSvat tvaritam anena tarugahanen>
apasarpata [while he is not coming:] before he comes, es-
cape quickly through this wood

The following example combines yivat ‘while’ and ySvat + na
‘before’:

yivad eva sa_cetan3 >smi, ytvad eva ca na parisphutam anena
vibhavyate me madana-dusce$tital3ghavam etat, tSvad ev>
asmat pradesad apasarpanam sreyah it is better to escape
from this place while I am still conscious, and [while by
him is not clearly detected:] before he clearly detects in me
this disrespect (arising) from the mischievous workings of
passion

The adverbial suffix vat

The possessive suffix vant is used adverbially in the neuter sin-
gular with the special sense of expressing a comparison: thus
brahmana vat ‘like a brahmin’. There is nothing in the form to
indicate the grammatical role played by the subject of the com-
parison in the rest of the sentence, and so according to context
brahmana vat may be the equivalent of brahmana iva,
brahmanam iva, etc. In the following example the context shows
that pitr vat is the equivalent of pitfn iva:

Kasl-pad;Maithil>;Anga:rajams ca suhrn-niveditan pitr vad
apasyat and he (the prince) looked on the kings of Kasi,
Mithila and the Angas, presented by his friends, as his fa-
thers

vteesah

a a

visesah literally means ‘distinction, difference, particularity’, and
is is often used in this literal sense. At the end of a determinative

chapter 12

166

compound (analysable as either dependent or descriptive) it may
also be used idiomatically to express the notion ‘a particular . . .,
a special . . Thus brihmanavisesah ‘[a particularity of brah-
min, a specialty that is a brahmin:] a particular brahmin’; stri-
visesah ‘a particular woman’; ratna-visesah ‘a special jewel, a
particularly excellent jewel’. Less frequently, visesa may be used
with this same meaning as the prior member of tlie compound.

Vocabulary

Agastyah pr. n.
apadesah pretence, pretext
atpariklesah lack of vexation
apsaras f. nymph (of heaven)
a:vighna unhindered
asokah asoka-tree
akula confused; akuli~bhfi grow
confused; p.p. in confusion
3kyus n. life
am oppressed
Ssanam sitting, seat
udghatin having elevations,
bumpy

kathitam thing spoken, talk,
conversation

kasta tara more grievous
kala-haranam delay; kala-
haranam kr (to) delay
kiyant how much?
ksudh f. hunger
tantram administration
tapasvin ascetic; pooi; wretched
tapo-vanam ascetics’ grove
devata divinity, god
dhanam wealth
dhyanam meditation, meditating
nayanam eye
patatrin bird
pan than m., irreg. noun
(Appendix 2 ) road, path, way
para other; m. enemy, (hostile)
stranger

pariklesah vexation
parigrahah occupation,
occupying

paritySgah giving up,
sacrificing; liberality
pasc&fctapah [after-pain:]
remorse

pindapatin m. mendicant
pracddyam shade
piatyakhyanam rejection
prayogah performance
(of play)

prasadah graciousness, favour;
free gift; prasad! kr bestow
[as free gift]

prarabdham thing undertaken,
enterprise

pravinyam proficiency
bharatah actor, player
bhfimi f. ground; fit objea
(for); parityaga-bhUmi object
of liberality, suitable
recipient (of)

mangalam welfare, auspicious
omen, good luck
manda slow, slack; mandi'bhu
slacken

manyu m. passion, anger
maranam death
maru m. desert
Manas am name of a lake
mohah delusion
rasmi m. rein, bridle

prahas n. solitude, secrecy;

| rahasi in secret

fripu m. enemy

lavah fragment; lava so lavasah

I piece by piece

flobhah greed

Iviklava bewildered, distressed
jj.vinita disciplined, modest
visesah distinction; ifc. see
chapter text ; visesa tah in
particular

visrambhah confidence;
visrambha-katha/kathitam
confidential or intimate
conversation
vrsti f. rain
vegah haste, speed
vetasah cane, reed
vesah dress, attire
vyasanam vice; weakness;
misfortune.

misery

sal ah sal-tree

$riparvatah name of a mountain
samyamanam restraint,
tightening
samjnS signal
sambandhin m. relative [by
marriage]

sahadharmacarin m. lawful
husband

sahadharmacarini lawful wife
samajikah spectator
sara m./n. substance; property
su:caritam good deed
su:nayana fair-eyed
sthali [dry] land
sthira firm; sthir!~kf make
firm, sustain; sthiri~bh&
be [come] firm
svPkr make one’s own,
appropriate

ati + kram (I atiktSmati) transgress, go against

apa + nl (I apanayati) remove, take away

ava + gam caus. (avagamayati) procure

akarnayati denom. [gee akarnaniya) give eae listen to

a + da (III Sdatte) take, take hold of, bring

ap (V apnoti) obtain, get

at -f pat (I utpatati) fly up

ut + as (II udaste) sit idle

upa + a + labh (I upalabhate) reproach, blame

apa + as (II upaste) sit by, wait upon, honour

cest (I cestati) move, act, behave (towards), treat (loc.)

tad (X tSdayati, pass, tadyate) strike, beat

ni + krt (VI nikrntati) cut up, shred

para + pat (I parapatati) approach, arrive

prati + a + dis (VI pratyadisati) reject; put to shame (by example)

pra + dru (I pradravati) run (p.p. intrans.)

pra + 3p caus. (prapayati) cause to reach, convey

brfi (II bravlti) say, tell

vah (I vahati, p.p. &dha) carry, take, marry

chapter 12

sam + yam (I samyacchati) restrain, arrest

sam + a + sad cans, (samasadayati) approach, attain, meet

sam + npa + dis (VI samupadisati) point out, show

ro

a:samyak wrongly
avir'bhfl become manifest,
reveal oneself
avis~kr make manifest,
reveal

itas tatah hither and thither
dro~bha become hidden, vanish
tfisnim as stay silent

tasnim bhfi be[come] silent
nanu may be translated as
‘rather’ in rejoinders
bahih outside
bhavatu [let it be:] right!
yatra, yatha, yada, yavat see
chapter text

-vat like (see chapter text)

Exercise 12 a 95 9 n i V93 *juil(*i urasnrtj

RtWMcbfafllPl 19 i ** 19 1 anmtr iraiftj

uuemMRrtiMiAa i* i irpt viihu^biA 95% 919: N

Tipfar ngfci n ftuwntft iii ffcrftar i ftmUr |

»gtuma>u?«n*m 1 19 1 u i fd tiUyfl trwnpra

qtjmfaiffr i R 19 « daia«tjf)u4dyM-Ae sra# *ra?r q9i

3:939909 *d(il II O I aufw 9:^9ft<14l4UI4il9l<-44fi| 111 t|

dRihPi^Kitl 9991 : 199 199^93^99193119 199 i^jiratfhaiiite
v i ^hi farfta n fan 19*1 9 g

smwhh h paw greuft 19m 4 m«hkwhhh*i owrt 3 ft i 94 j|
firitafrn n ftatfa mitaqift i uai 3fe: ppf mi

1941 3 fifoft t l frrcfam rc w w ft*: 1991 *rara#t

p« i 4^ 19° 1 9 ffcw 9 t wanw i fifri 9 hpra^dtr ^ifsznrmAf-

9 sr*ra?ft jifRTHT %raianftifH nt* TOHimpwil S*: 1991
9 gra 9 an 3 g 9 tfft 9 iA 9 1991 awrw tafitmwuiRivkvi

pn^»r wronparf irai$prci fsitnr oftwra^ft: 19m
araa 9 i g fa 9 t 9 uRmaP a ara yq nr 9 iawr
99 TStl 9 JI 9 mi

Exercise 12b For convenience, gerundives in tavya are repre-
sented by ‘must’ and those in ya and anlya by ‘should’.

1 What do you say? z With this letter (I) must defeat Raksasa.
* (You) must remain right there until the arrival-of-Makaranda-

and-Madayantika. 4 Let the two of us just listen. 5 Alas,
{my) enemies have made even my heart their own. 6 Stay, Your
Majesty [ayusmant], in this asoka-tree’s-shade, while I announce
.you to Indra’s-sire. 7 His-Excellency’s-instructions are that I
jhould safeguard Raksasa’s life. 8 So let it be as it must [be].
$ The whole administration is in confusion. 10 Why do *you
[stay silent? 1 1 So one should-not-blame Raksasa in this matter,
a 2 Good Bhasvaraka, take him outside and beat him till he talks.
13 Listen to this wonderful (thing). 14 Sakuntali must be in
.this very bower-of-reed-and-creeper. 1 5 So now you should not
[make:] feel anger towards your lawful husband. 16 I’ll go to
the very spot where that faireyed (girl) vanished before [foe.] my
eyes. 17 The dear child has revealed proficiency-in-speaking.
18 In that case let us wait upon their honours here the specta-
tors by [abl.] an actual [eva] performance-of-it. 19 *You too,
|ike His Highness, are one-whose-words-(I)-should-not-go-
against. 10 I behaved wrongly in delaying after I had met my
jbeloved. zi Alas! See how [use esah], sitting idle like-a-stranger
|n our friend’s-misfortunes, we are put to shame by this (man),
kz Oh merchant! You must rather [nanu] ask us ‘and how does
Ihat lack-of-vexation reveal itself?’ Z3 Before these birds fly up
(from the lake, eagerforManasa, (I) must procure news-of-(my)*
(jeloved from them. 24 Then, they having run hither and
(hither in [abl.] a pretence-of*fearon-receiving-the*signal [use
grhita in bahuvrihi ], you must take Sakatadasa away from the
execution-ground and convey him to Raksasa. 25 As soon as
[yad» aiva . . . tad» aiva] Menaka came to DaksayanI from the
nymphs’-pool [tlrtham] bringing Sakuntala distressed-by-(her)-re-
jection, I leamt-what-fcad-happened [vrttanta in bahuvrihi] from
meditating— that, as a result of [abl.] Durvasas’ curse, this poor
i(girl) had been rejected by her lawful husband.

CO

Paradigms: Presents of classes m, VII and IX; asau

Reduplication

Reduplication (as a grammatical phenomenon in Sanskrit) isi
the prefixing to the root of some initial part of that root in;
either identical or altered form. Thus from the roots tud ‘strike’
and kr ‘do’, the first person plural parasmaipada perfect forms :
tutudima ‘we struck’ and calqma ‘we did’. Reduplication is a|
feature of class III presents, of the perfect tense, of some aoristsV!
and of desiderative and intensive formations. The principles or
reduplication differ somewhat in each of these formations, but;
for convenience the following rules may be taken as a norm on|
the basis of which any variations will be described:

Only the first syllable of the root, i.e. the vowel and what pre-|
cedes it, is reduplicated: yuj, yuyuj; dih, didih.

Of an initial consonant group only the first consonant is re-;
peated: krus, cukrus. But when the group consists of s followed
by a stop (or by an unvoiced sound— the rule may be stated)
either way, since s is never followed by either a sibilant or i
voiced stop), it is the stop which is reduplicated. Thus stu, tu$tu
(with retroflexion by internal sandhi); whereas sru, susru fol-
lows the general rule. 1

1

Long vowels are shortened, and diphthongs represented by i or;
u as appropriate: nl, ninl; da, dad£; jlv, jijlv; sev, sisev. However^
roots ending in e/ai/o (often given as ending in a in Western
grammars) reduplicate with a: mlai, mamlai.

Aspirated consonants reduplicate in unaspirated form: bhidJ

bibhid. *

Velars are represented by corresponding palatals, and h by j:
kram, cakram ; khan, cakhan ; gup, jugup ; hu, juhu.

Roots beginning with a vowel follow the same general pattern
of reduplication, but internal sandhi produces considerable
changes of appearance. For instance, in the weak reduplicated
form of is, iis becomes Is; but in the strong reduplicated form,
ies becomes iyes.

The most important variation of the above principles is that the
vowel of the reduplicated syllable is in some circumstances
strengthened and in others replaced by a or by i. The vowels r/f
never reduplicate without change.

Presents of classes III, VII and IX

The present stem of class HI verbs is formed by reduplication of
the root: hu ‘offer (sacrifice)’, juhoti ‘he sacrifices’, juhumah ‘we
sacrifice’. The rules of reduplication are in general those de-
scribed above. r/f reduplicates as i: bhr ‘carry’, bibharti.

»

The chief peculiarity of these reduplicated stems is that in the in-
dicative and imperative parasmaipada the third person plural
-termination is ad atu, not *anti *antu: juhvati ‘they sacrifice’.
[In the imperfect there is a special third person plural termina-
tion uh.]

Among the more important stems of this class are dha ‘put’ and
da ‘give’. Their weak stems reduce to dadh and dad, and dadh
becomes dhat before t/th: dadhati ‘he puts’, dadhati ‘they put’,
dadhmah ‘we put’, dhattha ‘you put’. The imperative second
person singular parasmaipada is dhehi/dehi. A noteworthy com-
pound of dha is srad-dha ‘put trust in, believe’ (cf. Latin credo):
sraddhatte ‘he believes’, etc.

The roots ma ‘measure’ and ha ‘go forth’ have weak stems mim'
t/jihl which reduce to mim/jth before vowels.

'The distinguishing ‘suffix’ of class VII verbs is the nasal n infixed
Sifter the vowel of the root and strengthening to na in the strong
forms. Thus from yuj ‘join’, yu3j and yunaj: yunakti ‘he joins’,
.yuSjanti ‘they join’. One or two roots such as bhaBj ‘break’, are
‘quoted in a form already incorporating the nasal: this is because
(he nasal remains in various forms outside the present
stem— e.g. bhafijanam *a breaking’.

Class IX verbs add a suffix which has the strong form nh and the
weak forms nl before consonants and n before vowels : kri

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172

‘buy’, krinati ‘he buys’, krlnlmah ‘we buy’, krlnanti ‘they buy?,
Roots in Q shorten to u: pH, punati ‘purifies’. The infix nasai
found in various forms of roots such as bandh ‘tie’ is dropped:
badhnati ‘he ties’. Two of the commonest roots of this class are
jaa ‘know’ and grah ‘seize, take’: they shorten to ja and grh re-
spectively— janad ‘knows’, grhnati ‘takes’.

A peculiar termination ana for the second person singular paras-
maipada imperative is found in verbs of this class whose roots
end in a consonant: so grhana ‘take (it)’.

GO

The infinitive

The infinitive is formed by adding the suffix turn to the root
strengthened to guna grade: nl, netum ‘to lead’; budh, boddhum
‘to learn’; gam, gantum ‘to go’. In a fair number of verbs,
most of them ending in a consonant, the suffix is added with
connecting i: car, caritum ‘to move’; bhfi, bhavitum ‘to be’.
Generally, but by no means invariably, verbs that add ita in
the past participle add itum in the infinitive. Quite frequently,
infinitives of both forms are found: thus nayitum beside
netum. Derivative stems retain the suffix ay: carayitum ‘to cause
to move’.

Strengthening to guija is not invariable : thus likh, likhitum (as
well as lekhitum) ‘to write’. Several verbs containing r
strengthen this to ra: the commonest of them is drs, drastum ‘to
see’. The infinitive of grah ‘take’ is grahltum.

The Sanskrit infinitive has a more limited range of uses than the
English infinitive: various ways of representing the English in-
finitive have, in fact, been encountered in previous chapters. The
nominalisation of verbal notions may be accomplished in
Sanskrit by means of various nominal suffixes, or (though much
less frequently) by means of relative clauses. Apart from being
employed like the English infinitive to express purpose, the in-
finitive is generally restricted to ‘prolative’ use after a number of
verbs and adjectives with meanings like ‘want to, (be) able to,
begin to, (be) ready to’, etc.: thus srotum icchami ‘I want to
hear’. (However; in implying a request, such a turn of phrase
does not have the abruptness of the English expression, and so
‘I should like to’ would usually be a more appropriate transla-
tion.) Similarly, srotum saknoti ‘he can hear’; srotum samarthah
‘(he is) capable of hearing’, j SI with an infinitive means ‘have
enough knowledge to, know how to’.

lam with an infinitive usually means ‘has the capacity to’:

bhuvam adhipatir bal>=avastho py alam pariraksitum

a ruler, though a child in years, is capable of guarding the
earth

The verb arh, literally ‘be worthy to’, may express the notion
‘should, ought’. It is frequently used in particular as a polite way
of conveying a request or instruction:

sanaU; sanair arodhum arhati devah Your Majesty should
ascend very gently: be careful as you ascend. Your Majesty

The second main use of the infinitive is to express purpose (‘in
order to’). It has the same sense as a verbal noun in die dative or
in composition with artham but is especially used with verbs of
motion or where a verbal noun is not readily available.

tad esa Vrsalas tv&m drastum agacchati here then is Vrsala
coming to see you

pascSt kopayitum ayusmantam tatha krtavan asmi there-
after to make you angry, sire, I acted thus

An infinitive may be used with words such as avasarah and
samayah ‘opportunity to, (right) time to’:

avasarah khalv ayam Stmanam darsayitum this is certainly
the moment to reveal myself

Sometimes an infinitive comes near to functioning as the
subject of a sentence, when it is an extension of an impersonal
passive— e.g. alikhitum vismrtam asmabhih ‘we forgot
to draw’. Similar and quite frequent is the use with yukta
‘right, proper’, ayukta ‘wrong’, etc. (The finite verb form
yujyate ‘is proper’ may be used in the same way.) The construc-
tion may be with a genitive of reference, or with a predicative in-
strumental, as in the impersonal gerundive:

na yuktam anayos tatra gantum it is not right for the two of
them to go there

nir_udyogair asmabhir avasthatum ayuktam it is wrong for
us to remain without exertion

There is no special passive form of the infinitive. It may, how-
ever bear a passive sense when used in a passive context, e.g.
hantum nlyate ‘is taken to be killed’. In particular the passives
of irabh ‘begin’ and sak ‘be able’ are used where we use a pas-
sive infinitive in English: kartum arabhyate ‘is beginning to be

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done’; kartuqi sakyate ‘can be done’. The adjective sakya ‘posSM
ble, able to be’ is frequent in this passive sense, used either per-g
sonally or impersonally:

sakyah khalv esa . . . prajBaya nivarayitum he can of course,]
be checked by guile

adhunl sakyam anena maranam apy anubhavitum it is now
possible for him to suffer even death

The infinitive suffix appears exceptionally in its stem form tu
with the nouns k&mah ‘desire’ and (less often) manas ‘mind’ to
form bahuvrihi compounds: apahnotiak&ma ‘having a desire to
conceal, anxious to conceal’; kartiumanas ‘having a mind to do,
intending to do’; kirn asi vakttuldfrnah? ‘what are you wanting
to say?’

Future tense

The future tense is formed by adding the suffix sya, or isya
(which is the preceding suffix with connecting i), to the root
strengthened to guna grade, the resulting stem being inflected in
the thematic a class. Thus nl, nesyati ‘will lead’; bhfl, bhavisyati
‘will be’. There is a general correspondence as to the strength-
ening of the root and the addition of the connecting vowel be-
tween this formation and that of the infinitive: so drakfyati ‘will
see’, grahlsyati ‘will take’, likhi$yati ‘will write’. The most im-
portant difference is that all roots ending in r must add the con-
necting vowel: so kartum ‘to do’, but karisyati ‘will do’.

The sense of the future corresponds to that of English ‘shall’ and
‘will’, more particularly in the ‘uncoloured’ usages of these
words. If the distinction between ‘shall’ and ‘will’ is crucial,
it must be represented in some other way in Sanskrit; but a
sentence such as acirad asya parisramasya phafam anunipam
adhigamisyasi may be translated equally well as ‘you shall soon
receive’ or ‘you will soon receive, a suitable recompense for this
exertion’.

ardharatra-samaye Candraguptasya Nanda-bhavana-praveso
bhavisyati Candragupta’s entry into the Nanda palace
will happen at midnight

n> edam vismarisyami I shan’t/won’t forget this

ramanlyam hi vatsa:Makarandam avalokayisyati MadayantM
Madayantika will see dear Makaranda (looking) most
attractive

|Many instances have already been given of the present tense
fused to announce an immediate intention. If the future tense
Lsed in the same way has any difference of force, it is perhaps in
gmaking the statement of intention a shade more deliberate:
fprcchami ‘I’ll ask (him)’, praksy&mi ‘what I’ll do is ask (him)’.

evam rajik ham iti parijf&nam bhavet. bhavatu, atithi-sam3cS-
ram avalambisye (if I act) like that, there might be the
realisation that I am the king. Well then, I will adopt the
behaviour of a (normal) guest

LThe future may express a prediction about an already existing
Estate of affairs (‘it will turn out to be the case that’), as also in
English— ‘that will be the postman’.

jf&syati Candanadasasya vrttantam (this man) will (be sure
to) know what has happened to Candanadasa

The prediction may also be about a past event, and here, as in
the English use of the future perfect, a generalisation may be im-
plied: ‘he won’t have done anything foolish’ implies ‘—because
in general he would not do anything foolish’. Thus ‘would’ or
*would have’ are sometimes possible English translations of the
Sanskrit future.

175

CO

esa . . . ratho drsyate— na khalu so >krt>;artho nivartisyate
look, I can see the chariot! He won’t have/wouldn’t have
returned [/wouldn’t return] unsuccessful

na hy an&tma-sadrsesu Raksasah kalatram nyasFkarisyati
Raksasa certainly won’t have/wouldn’t have entrusted
[/wouldn’t entrust] his wife to those [not worthy of:] less
worthy than himself

Relative adverbs continued

Examples have been given in Chapters n and iz of subordinate
clauses having a nominal or adverbial feature in common with a
main clause. In any language there also arises the need to make
the whole notion of one clause a subordinate part of the notion of
another One might alternatively talk of subordinating the verbal
notion of one clause. These two concepts are not in fact equiva-
lent, but languages have some tendency to treat them as such. For
instance, in die English ‘his acquiescence has been unhappy’, ‘un-
happy’ may qualify the verbal notion of acquiescense (‘acquies-
cence in an unhappy spirit’) or the implicit total notion (‘that he
should have acquiesced is to be regretted’). We may use devices

chapter 13

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176

such as intonation and pause to distinguish the two: ‘he has a||
quiesced unhappily’ as against ‘he has acquiesced, unhappily^!

As should already be clear (e.g. from the discussion of the use j||
abstract nouns in Chapter io), Sanskrit deals with such relgl
tionships principally by means of nominal constructions. Bui
where finite constructions are used, they are achieved by ex-
tending the sense of the relative pronouns and adverbs. (Certain
subordinating conjunctions exist, notably cet ‘if’, which are nol
formally related to the relative base ya-, but they may usually bg
treated as the equivalent of some relative adverb— the major exj
ception being, of course, hi.) As a result of this extension <|
usage, certain ambiguities arise. This is not surprising, for evq
in English, where subordinate clauses are far more important^
there is a similar situation— cf. the two possible interpretations
of the phrase ‘the fact that we must not forget’, or the mere
comma (or slight change of intonation) which distinguishes ‘hei
said nothing which annoyed me’ from ‘he said nothing, which
annoyed me’.

In what follows, a number of the more important extensions ojf'
usage will be described. The translations of the examples given!
should usually make the usage plain. The (perhaps rather elabo-
rate) theoretical framework has been introduced to help account }
for some ambiguities.

First, there is the simple case in which a following (‘connecting’) I
relative has as its antecedent the whole of the preceding state- j
ment:

J

. . . acakranda raja-kanya, yena tat sakalam eva kanya-
>ntahpuram . . . akullbabhfiva the princess screamed— (by
which (screaming) that whole girls’ quarters was thrown ,
into confusion:] which threw the whole of the girls’ quar-
ters into confusion

bakula-male upakariny asi, yatah svagatam bhavatyah
bakula garland, you are my ally— [as a result of which:]
and therefore, welcome to you

katham iyam bhagavatyah . . . adya sisya Saudamani ? — yatah
sarvam adhuna samgacchate what, is this Her Reverence’s
earliest pupil Saudamani? [as a result of which:] in that
case everything now fits

This use of yatah to mean ‘therefore’ (introducing an effect) con-
trasts sharply with its use to mean ‘for’ (introducing a cause) as
described below.

;Where the total notion of the clause is subordinate to another
Statement, it is introduced most neutrally by the neuter singular
form yat. (In traditional terms, yat may be said to represent the
'internal accusative’ of the subordinate verb.)

yan mithah:samavifyad imam madly&m duhitaram bhavan
upayeme, tan maya pritimata yuvayor anujSatam that
you, siti married this my daughter by mutual union, I
gladly assent to for you both

eken> abhisamdhina pratyarpayami . . . yad idam ah am eva
yatha_sthanam nivesayami I’ll hand (it) over on one con-
dition— that I should be the one to put it in place

a;

I^Then a noun clause is the object of a verb meaning ‘say’,
*‘know’, etc., the regular construction is, of course, with iti. But
jwhere the noun clause follows the main clause, a frequent alter-
yiative is to introduce it with yatha. (One might compare the use
ibf ‘how’ for ‘that’ in sentences like ‘he told me how a man had
-come to see him’.) In fact, in such cases iti is frequently added
pleonastically at the end of the clause (in the second of the fol-
lowing examples it is not pleonastic, being needed for the sub-
subordinate clause):

vatsa, ucyatam Bhagurayano yatha ‘tvaritam sambhavay>
ainam’ id child, let BhUgurayana be told to find him at once

idam tSvat prasiddham eva, yatha Nandanaya Malatim prar-
thayamanam Bhurivasur nrpam uktavan ‘prabhavati
nija:kanyaka:janasya Maha:raja’ iti Now it is entirely es-
tablished that Bhurivasu told the king when the latter was
seeking Malati for Nandana, ‘Your Majesty has power
over his own daughter’

The subordinate clause may be related as reason to the main
clause. The implied correlative of yat is then tat in its sense of
‘then, so’, and its force may be represented literally in English by
‘inasmuch as’:

177

f

u

kim aty&hitam Madhavasya, yad anistam vyavasito>si? is
there (some) disaster to Madhava, that you have (this)
dreadful resolve?

This has the same force as the use of the personal relative pro-
noun described in Chapter n (p. 147), but the latter is, of
course, more restricted in its scope, since it can be used only
when there is some identifiable common element in the two
cfouses. In the three examples given in Chapter 11, on the other
hand, yat might be substituted without change of meaning.

chapter 13

178

I CO I

As well as yat, other forms of the relative are used. These fora
are somewhat illogical and represent the attraction of the relS
tive into the case of the antecedent. Thus yena really means te
yat ‘in view of the (fact) that’.

aho maharprabhavo raja Duhsantah, yena pravista;matra <
atrabhavati nir_upaplavani nah kaiyani samvrttani hoy
great is the power of King Duhsanta, in that from the mb
ment His Honour entered, our rites have become unmole

[Note that, without the locative absolute phrase, yena migh|
have been interpreted personailly— ‘he by whose agency*.]

na yathavad drstam, yat karanam bhavan a:pradhanalj
(you) did not see it properly, for the reason that you are not
one in authority

abhimata va bhavanam atithayah sampraptah, yat
esa paka- vises >-arambhah ? or have honoured guests]
come to the house, that there is this embarking upon]
special cooking?

# :j

na khalv anyatha vastu-vrttam, yatah sravak>avasthSy5m
asmat;SaudamanI-samaksam anayor vrtt» eyam pratijHa
the facts are not really [otherwise:] at variance (with what
has been said), for when they were students the two of
them made this promise before Saudimanl and myself

The meaning of ‘inasmuch as’ shades into that of ‘for’ (in which’
sense the emphatic particle hi is common) and finally into that
of ‘because’:

yato >yam dr&n nirvrto mam> opayogam na jSnati, ten>
adhuna mam> ahara-dane >pi mand>;adarah because this
man, satisfied for (so) long, does not recognise my utility,
he is now careless even in providing fodder for me

When the subordinate clause is related as a result to the main
clause, it may be introduced by yatha. This again is a case of at-
traction into the form of the correlative : tatha . . . yatha means
‘in such a way that (as a result)’:

bhos tatha >ham utpatita yatha sakala esa giri;nagara;grama;
sarid;aranya-vyatikaras caksusa pariksipyate oh, I have
flown up so (high) that this whole expanse of mountains,
cities, villages, rivers and forests is encompassed by my eye

upodhairagena vilolaitarakam
tatha grhltam sasina nisa-mukham
yatha samastam timir>:amsukam tay3
puro >pi ragad galitam na laksitam

I The moon, with passion [/redness] increased, has seized the
tremulous-eyed [/winking-starred] face [/forepart] of the night
in such a way that she has not noticed all the garment of her
darkness slip away even in front [/in the east] because of (her
answering) passion [/redness]

her relatives and correlatives are possible in result clauses,
us:

Idrsas te nirm&na-bh&gah parinato, yena lajjaya svacchandam
akranditum api na salcyate your [allotment of creation:]
destiny in life has turned out to be such that for very shame
one cannot even weep as one would wish

However^ Sanskrit usually expresses consequence by sub-
ordinating the reason rather than the result: ‘he was so miserly
tie never spent a shilling’ would become ‘by him being miserly
hot a shilling was spent’.

aho, Raksasam prati me vitarka-bahulyad akula buddhir na
niscayam adhigacchati [oh, confused from the multitude
of doubts about Raksasa, my mind attains no certainty:] I
am in such a storm of doubt about Raksasa, I cannot make
up my mind

evam nirbhinnaihrday>-Svegah sisu:janen> apy anukampito
>smi [thus with the agitation of my heart betrayed, I am
pitied even by children:] I betrayed my distress so clearly
that even a child takes pity on me

atibhfimim ayam gato na sakyate nivartayitum [having gone
to excess, this one cannot be turned back:] he has gone too
far to be turned back

179

GO

The use of yatha in expressing result is commonest in a particu-
lar idiom with verbs like kr ‘act’ and vidha ‘arrange’, to express
‘act in such a way that’, ‘see to it that’:

yatha svaml jagard tatha maya kartavyam I must see to it
that my master wakes up

yatha >ham bhavadbhyam sah> akasa-vartmana yami, sa upayo
vidhlyatam [so that I go with you two by the way of air,
let that expedient be arranged:] find a way for me to ac-
company the two of you in your flight

Similarly with nisidh ‘forbid’ (note how the common subject is
placed with the first verb rather than with the main verb):

yatha ca sainikas tapo-vanam n> oparundhanti durat pariha-
ranti ca, tatha niseddhavyah [and so that the soldiers do
not molest the ascetic grove and avoid it from afar, thus

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chapter 13

180

GO

1

(they) are to be checked:} and you must restrain the sc
diers from molesting the ascetic grove and have them kef
well clear of it

The notion expressed by a noun clause may be a possibilil
rather than a fact (and even so— as in the example eka
abhisarndhinS . . . above— the verb may remain in the preset
indicative):

yac ca ‘srgalo >yam’ iti matva mam> bpary avajBa kriyate, ta
apy ayuktam and that (he) should feel (/for him to fee
contempt for me thinking ‘he is (just) a jackal’, that ata
(would be) wrong

Here we might most naturally say ‘if he should feel’. And tl
usual word for ‘if’, yadi, is in fact in origin merely yat with
strengthening particle. A correlative is often lacking (regular
so when the conditional follows the main clause). When d
pressed, it is probably most usually tat, but other correlatives at
often found, such as tatah, tacfo, tarhi.

arye, yadi nepathya-vidhanam adhyavasitam, tad ih> agamya&n
lady, if arrangements backstage are completed, come here j

iha devam upatisthatu, yadi na dosah let him attend Youj
Majesty here, if there is no [fault:] objection

The alternative word for ‘if’, cet, must not stand as the firs)
word in its clause: 1

na ced anya:kary>-atipatah, pravisy> atra grhyatam atithi-satka-
rah if (it means) no neglect of other duties, enter here ani
accept (our) hospitality

Other words, such as atha, are also found:

atha kautukam, avedaySmi if (you feel) curiosity, I’ll tell you!

With api added, we have yady api ‘even if, though’. Similar ii|
sense is kSmam ‘granted that, though’. The correlative may ba

tatha >pi, punar, tu ‘even so, yet’. ^

’

kamam khalu sarvasy> api kula-vidya bahumatS, na punarj
asmakam nStyani prati mithyS gauravam though of course;
everyone thinks highly of his own hereditary learning, ouri
regard for the drama is not misplaced ^

yady apy ete na pasyanti, lobh^opahataicetasah, ;

kula-ksaya-krtam dosam mitra-drohe ca patakam—

katham na jHeyam asmabhih papad asman nivartitum,
kula-ksaya-krtam dosam prapasyadbhir, JanSrdana?

181

Even if these men, their understanding killed by greed, do not
see

The sin caused by the ruin of a family and the crime in the in-
juring of a friend.

How should we not know (enough) to turn back from this
wickedness,

We, Krishna, who can see such sin?

asau

The pronoun asau ‘that, he’ is less common than the other
demonstrative pronouns. It is used specifically of what is not
near at hand, but anything to which it refers may also be re-
ferred to, if absent by the pronoun sah and if present by the pro-
noun ayam. To give stronger deictic force (‘there is, look at that’)
the combination ayam asau may be used:

ayam asau mah&nadyor vyatikarah there is the confluence
of the two great rivers

OO

Used of what is absent, asau offers a perhaps slightly more em-
phatic alternative to sah:

Vrsala Raksasah khalv asau Vrsala, he (/the man you are
talking about) is Raksasa, don’t forget

hrt>iadhikarah kva simpratam asau batuh ? where is that fel-
low, now that he has lost his job?

Sdi ‘etc.’

adi m. and less frequently some other word such as prabhrti f.,
literally meaning ‘beginning’, may be used at the end of a
bahuvrlhi compound with the sense ‘of which the beginning is
X’, and therefore ‘beginning with X/[consisting of] X, etc./ such
as X’:

Indr>iadayah surah the gods Indra, etc., Indra and the other
gods

srotr>;adln> indriy&ni the senses such as hearing

Visvavasu;prabhrtayas trayo bhratarah Visvavasu and his
two (younger) brothers

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chapter 13

Note the possibility of the translation ‘X and', particularly ini
the last of the above examples. m

Such compounds are often used without the substantive!
they qualify being expressed. If the omitted substantive hasj
a rather general reference, there is a tendency for the compound ]
itself to be put into the singular: |

tnrto >sau Samjlvako, >smabhis o agny;3dina satkrtah that j
Samjlvaka is dead, and we have [honoured him with fire»
etc.:] given him a cremation ceremony and so forth ,

na hy etabhyam atidlptaipraj31|medhabhyam asmadiadeh
sah>:adhyayana-yogo >sti for (anyone) like us, there is no
managing common lessons with those two, whose under-
standing and intellect are exceptionally brilliant ,

The neuter singular form prabhrti comes to be used adverbially
with the ablative or with a form ending in the suffix tah in the.
sense of ‘from X onwards, since’: drat prabhrti ‘since a long
time’, tatah prabhrti ‘from that (point) on’.

SjffSpayati and vijfiSpayati

The causatives of ajSa and vijBa (of which the past participles
have the anomalous alternative forms ajfiapta and vijfiapta) may
often be translated ‘order’ and ‘request’ respectively. More
widely, they may both mean ‘say’, the first with the implication
that the speaker is someone (such as a king or guru) whose word
is not to be questioned, the second with die reverse implication
that the speaker is someone (such as a counsellor or pupil) who
should show deference to the person addressed. A form such as
vijaapayami ‘I beg to state’ may, of course, simply indicate po-
liteness between equals.

Vocabulary

atidu m. guest
anucarah companion,
attendant

anutapal) remorse
antaram interval
anve$in searching, in search of
apatyam offspring

apaiaddha (p.p.) and
aparadhin offending, guilty
abhiyogai} attack
amrtam nectar, ambrosia
ajaa command, order
adi m. beginning;

$di see chapter text

. apta trustworthy
i$u m. arrow
upapanna equipped with,
possessed of

■ upasamgrahah embracing;

collecting; looking after
etSvant this much
kanyaka girl
kamah wish, desire, love;
"tuikama wanting to,
anxious to (see chapter text)
kayasthah scribe, letter-writer
karaqarm reason
kavyam [that which derives
from a kavi ‘poet, creative
writer’ :] literature
'kumarakah young man, son
kfta-vedin conscious of [things
1 done for one:] debt: grateful,

? obliged

1 ko$ah treasury, resources,
j wealth
I kriya doing; rite
| lqatriyah [member of] warrior
| [caste]

| guhya [to be concealed:] secret
I Gautami pr. rt.
gauravam high esteem, duty of
respect [towards an elder]
ghafal) pot
cakjus ti. eye
jata p.p. bom; jata-karman
n. birth-ceremony
jaatf knower, person to know/
understand

tikjqa:rasa-dalj poisoner
tuccha trifling
dasl slave girl, servant girl
Devaratah pr.n.
dauhitrah daughter’s son,
grandson

dhura pole, yoke, burden

Nandal) pr. n.
nrpad m. king
payas n. water
para far, ultimate, supreme
parigrahah acquisition,
possession

paritojah satisfaction
puqya auspicious, holy
puratana (f. i) former
prthvi, pfthivi earth
pracchadanam concealment
pratikula contrary, hostile
pramaqam measure, size
pralqta (f. a/I) of the people,
vulgar, common
priyam benefit, service
badha molestation, damage
brahmacarin m. student ;
satbrahmacarin m.
fellow-smdent
bharika burdensome
bhfl$aqaip ornament
bhraipsal) fall, decline;
stMna-bhraqisah fall from
position, loss of place
mati mant possessing wit,
sensible

madhya-stha [mid-standing:]
neutral

manorathah desire
mantrin m. minister
yukta proper; right
rahasya secret
raja-karyam, rajya-karyam
[business of king/kingdom:]
state affairs, state
administration
ramaniyakam loveliness,
delightful aspect
lalqaqaip characteristic,
(auspicious) mark
Lopamudra pr. tt.

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chapter 13

-vacanSt [from the speech of:]
in the name of

var3ka (/. I) wretched, poor
vanjah colour; appearance
vac /. speech, words
vadin speaking, talking
vasin living in, dweller
vijaapana request
vidhi m. injunction [esp. for
performance of religious rite];
vidhi vat according to [the
injunction of| ritual
vivaksita (desiderative p.p.)

wished to be said, meant
viharah (Buddhist) monastery
convent

vedin knowing, conscious of,
appreciative of

vyapadesal; designation, name
vyayah loss; expense,
extravagance
vyaghrah tiger
^aka(adasab pr. n.
sa(ha cunning
Satakratu m. (name of) Indra

Sakuntaleya born of
Sakuntala

slsanarp command
suddhantah women’s
apartments, household
sfila mJn. stake; sdlam a + rub
cam. solidus [cause to mount
the stake:] impale
sfg&lab jackal
srotj m. listener; someone to
listen

srauta derived from scripture,
scriptural
svapakah outcast
samcayah collection,
quantity

satkarab hospitality
samartha capable, able
sadvyam being minister;

post of minister
Siddharthakah pr. n.
secanam (act of) sprinkling,
watering

Somaratah pr. n.
sainikah soldier

ati + si (II atisete) surpass, triumph over

anu + jaa (IX anujanati) allow, give someone leave to (dat. of verbal
noun)

abhi + druh (IV abhidruhyati) do violence to

abhi + vrt (I abhivartate) approach, go towards, make for

arb (I arhati) be worthy; ‘should’ ( see chapter text)

ava + jaa (IX avajanlti) despise

a + khya (II akhyati) declare, tell

a + df (IV adriyate) heed, respect, defer to, refer to

a + ruh cam. (aropayati) cause to mount, raise onto

ut + ghus (I udgho^ati) cry out

ut + ha (III ujjihlte) start up; depart

upa + bhuj ( VII upabhunkte) enjoy, consume, spend

upa + rudh (VII uparunaddhi) besiege, invade

t + langh cans, (nllanghayati) transgress, violate

im cans, kamayate desire, be in love with

up cans, kopayati anger

H{ cans. (dOsayari) spoil, defile

ari + ci (V paricinoti) become acquainted with,

[recognise

i4 (X pi<jayati) squeeze
ii (IX punati, punlte) purify
((cans. pfirayati, p.p. pflrna) fill, fulfil
ra + khya cans, (prakhyapayati) publish, proclaim
rati + nand (I pratinandati) receive gladly, welcome
rati + vi + dha (ID pratividadhSti) prepare against, take
precautions

in + bha (II prabhsti) shine forth, dawn

ia + yat (I prayatate) strive, exert oneself

tfa + yuj (VII prayunkte) employ; perform (on stage)

nan cans, (manayati) esteem, honour

nr; cans. (mar;ayati) overlook, excuse

ri+a + pr cans, (vyaparayati) set to work, employ

ak (V saknoti) be able, can

jam cans, (samayati) quieten, appease

irad + dha (m sraddhatte) trust, believe

at + kr (Vm satkaroti) receive with hospitality, entertain

am + dha (ID samdhatte) bring together; aim (arrow)

E m + a + safij (I samasajati) attach something to (loc),
impose upon
fs (VI sprsati) touch

185

CO

ati: (karmadhiraya prefix )
too, over-, extremely, very
atidrat after very long
anyatra elsewhere
iisau that, he, she
itaretara ( stem form) mutual,
. of/to etc. each other
beat? I hope that . . .?
k&mam admittedly; granted
; that

drat at long last
cet ( enclitic ) if
prabhpti + abl. starting with,
from . . . onward, ever since
pradur + bhfi become manifest,
arise

yat satyam [what is true:) truth
to tell, in truth

yady evam [if so:) in that case
yatah, yadi, etc.: see chapter text

chapter 13

chapter 13

Exercise 13a n m<

*piT fenft B^TT: l?l IX I Ufif 1RT firafl Ilf

t^pt xff ewraw m i xiflumij ^irt nriwiPi

i?^ i sreyayrthwfafrym wimiffrn ^re r aute u ^ w rnsnur

Vl*«l«: 'fFNirffiRT: i?C I V T3^ 3rfptf*Rfa

i ?rasril rsi ?5*nr rnwftaa*;

Exercise 13b (In this exercise translate ‘should’ where appro-,
priate by aih.) • .i

i Vijaya, do *you recognise this ornament? z That fellow i?-
certainly cunning. 3 Lavangika has managed-well, since Mlife
hava’s-attendant Kalahamsatka is in love with that servant*'
girl-of-the-convent, Mandkrika. 4 But where will *you (ladies)
wait for me? 5 Why, quite without-giving an, ansW®
he has' started to dance. 6 What, are soldiers in-search-6fW>
invading the ascetic grove? 7 Granted that this is to be prized,

[yet we are neutral about it [atra). 8 After not very long the L. ?
minister will restore [use h + ruh cans.] us to (our) former state. '
y It is not right to despise even a common man. io King
[Candragupta, it is already known to you that we lived for a cer-
:tain interval-of-time with [loc.] Malayaketu. n Oh Visnugupta,

;you should not touch me (who am) defiled-by-the-touch-of-an-out-
caste. 12 My dear child, I hope you have greeted [abhi + nand]

•this son bom of £akuntala whose-birth-ceremony-and-other-
rites-were-performed by us according to ritual? 13 Then give
■me leave to go. 14 We are not able to triumph with words over
Your Excellency’s words. 15 If Your Excellency thus sees the
time-for-attack, why delay? 16 Come in, my dear fellow: you
will get someone to listen and to understand. 17 ‘Just now (he) I ^

has directed his daughter to (show) hospitality-to-guests and 1

gone to Soma-tlrtha to appease a fate hostile to her’— ‘In that
case she is the one I will see.’ 18 Why do you ask, friend,
un-believing(ly)? 19 Is the earth without-warriors, that (you)
cry out in this way? 20 I should like to employ you, my dear
fellow, on a certain task that-must-be-performed-by-a-trustwor-
thy-person. 21 If the grandson-of-the-sage proves to be [bhfi]
possessed-of-those-marks, you will welcome her and introduce
her into your household. 22 Do you then not pity the poor
(girl) whose-life-is-departing? 23 Loss-of-place will not oppress
one-without-possessions. 24 (We) have established Sakatac&sa
with a great quantityof-wealth to-look-after the poisoners-and-
so-forth employed-by-us to do violence to Candragupta’s-per-
son, and to-instigate-(his)-subjects-to-rebellion. 25 Madhavya
my friend, you have-not-obtained-the-reward-ofyour-eyes, since
you have not seen the ultimate of things to see [drastavya].

26 Oh merchant Candanacfosa, a king so severe-in-punishment
towards traitors will not overlook *your concealment-of
Rj-ksasa’s-wife. 27 Since those tigers-and-others, deceived- by-
mere-appearance, without-knowing (him to be) a jackal regard
that one (as) king— see [p/.] to it that he is recognised. 28 Your
Majesty, who else anxious-to-live would have violated Your .
Majesty’s command? 29 Though (your) master’s-merits cannot
be forgotten. Your Excellency should honour my-request.

chapter 13

Paradigms: Imperfect and optative of present stems; sreyams

Imperfect tense

Like the imperative, the imperfect is part of the present stem oft
the verb. It shares its two most prominent characteristics withs?
the aorist tense (Chapter 15): the stem is prefixed by an aug-
ment, and the terminations are the ‘secondary terminations’.

The augment consists of the vowel a: nayati ‘he leads’, anayat
‘he led’; karoti ‘he does’, akarot ‘he did’. When the stem begins
with a vowel, the combination with a always results in vrddhi,
even in the case of i/I/u/Q/r: thus icchati ‘he wants’, aicchat ‘he
wanted’. When a verb is compounded with a prefix, the aug-
ment is always placed after any such prefix, immediately before'
the verb: samudatisthat ‘he rose up’, from sam + ut + sthi.

t

The personal endings of the present tense (e.g. -ti) are called ‘pri-
mary’, and those of the imperfect and aorist (e.g. -t) are called
‘secondary’. The terminology is in fact misguided, since from an
historical point of view the ‘primary’ endings are derived from
the ‘secondary’. Thus on the basis of a primitive nayat (survivr
ing in Vedic as a form of the ‘injunctive’ mood), the imperfect
anayat is differentiated by the addition of the augment and the
present nayati by the addition of a suffix i (while the imperative
nayatu is differentiated by the addition of another suffix, u). The
relationship of primary and secondary endings is not always so
transparent, and there is no alternative to committing the para-
digms to memory, but it is perhaps also worth pointing out that
the third person plural form anayan is reduced (because Sanskrit
words cannot normally end in more than one consonant) from
an original *anayant.

|a the imperfect, as in the present, of athematic verbs, the three
[parasmaipada singular forms are strong, the rest weak. Those
lyerbs which take -ati not -anti in the third person plural paras-
iinaipada present (class m verbs and some other reduplicated
Items) take -uh not -an in the corresponding imperfect form.
Tinal a disappears before this suffix, but i/I/u/Q/r take guna:
ajuhavuh ‘they sacrificed’. In a few further verbs of class H this
ending is an optional alternative.

The imperfect is used as a simple past narrative tense— ‘he did’,
‘he went’, etc. It is frequent in certain styles of Sanskrit, but since
its sense may also be represented by the past participle and the
past active participle (and to some extent by the aorist or perfect)
there are other kinds of Sanskrit in which it occurs rarely. The ex-
amples of the imperfect in Exercise 14 are taken mainly from
Classical prose romances. The imperfect tense is so named be-
cause it is parallel in formation with the imperfect of various other
Indo-European languages, notably Greek. But it is important to
realise that in sense it normally has no progressive or durative im-
plication (‘he was doing’, ‘he used to do’, etc.). Such implications
tend, even in past time, to be expressed in Sanskrit by the present
tense (sometimes with the addition of the particle sma):

189

atha sS yada vtyu-preritair vrksa-sakha->graih sprsyate, tada
sabdam karoti, anyatha tusnlm aste now when the tips of
the tree-branches, stirred by the wind, touched that (drum),
it would make a noise, (while) otherwise it would remain
silent

tasmat saraso> dura-vartini tapo-vane jabalir nama maha;tapa
munih prativasati sma in an ascetics’ grove not far from
that lake there lived an ascetic of great austerity named
Javali

(Conversely, it should be mentioned, the use of the present as an
ordinary past narrative tense— ‘historic present’— is not charac-
teristic of good Classical writers.)

An exception to the general significance of the imperfect is pro-
vided by the imperfect of as ‘be’, which normally has a stative
sense (except in a phrase such as tflsnim asit ‘fell silent’):

Rsyasrng>-&srame gumjanas tad» asit (his) elders were at
that time in Rsyasrnga’s hermitage

priy>iarama hi sarvatha Vaidehy asit the Princess of Videha
was always fond of the woodland

chapter 14

chapter 14

Sometimes, by combining with a past participle, this verb cd|
convey a pluperfect sense: J

atha tSmbula-karahka-vahini madlyS TaralikS n&na mayj
aiva saha gatd sn3tum asit now my betel-box carnal
called TaralM [was having gone:] had gone to bathe with ml

Imperfect forms may be made from the future stem, giving;^
tense known as the conditional: thus from karisyati ‘he will do^j
akarisyat (lit. ‘he was going to do’) ‘he would have done’. Thg
use of this tense is mentioned below. 'J,

The optative J]

From the paradigms it will be seen that the optative links the
secondary endings to the present stem by means of a suffix 1 or
yi, which in the case of thematic verbs becomes e (from a + 1)1
Before either form of the suffix the stem of athematic verbs ap-
pears in its weak form.

While a prescriptive usage (‘he shall do’) is common in law^
books and similar texts, the prevalent sense of the optative iijr
Classical literary texts is potential, to express what ‘may’ or
‘might’ be the case now or in the future (or even occasionally in
the past). In plain statements kaddcit ‘perhaps’ is often added:

atha va mayi gate nrsamso hanySd enSm but no, with me
gone the monster may kill her

kumSra, anyes&m hhfimip 3l3n3m kadadd amityavyasanam
a:vyasanam sySt, na punas Candraguptasya Your
Highness, for other rulers a deficiency in ministers might
perhaps be no deficiency, but not for Candragupta

&r3ma-pr&sada-vedik3y3m krldadbhih p£r3vataih pltitam
bhavet it [may be having been dropped:] may have been
dropped by the pigeons while playing in the balcony of the
pleasure-pavilion

kv> edSnlm atmanam vinodayeyam where can I now distract
myself?

api khalu svapna esa syat? could this indeed be a dream?

The combination api ndma is frequent with the optative, and
may express anything from speculation or anxious hope to a
wish, even an impossible wish (‘if only’):

tad api n&na R3ma:bhadrah punar idam vanam alamkurySt?
might dear Rama, then, (be going to) grace this forest
again?

api nim> aham Pururava bhaveyam if only I (a woman)
could become Pururavas!

191

temote conditions

lie optative is used to express remote hypotheses in relation to
he future (‘if he were to do’) or the present (‘if he were doing’),
he construction does not in itself distinguish clearly between ‘if
|this were to happen, this would be so’ and ‘if this were to hap-
en, this might be so’.

tad yadi kadScic Candraguptas Cinakyam ati:jitakasinam
a:sahamanah sarivyad avaropayet, tatah . . . am3tya:R5ksasas
Candraguptena saha samdadhlta so if by any chance
Candragupta, not enduring Canakya(’s being so) extremely
arrogant, were to dismiss him from his ministerial post,
Minister Raksasa might come to terms with Candragupta

,One of the optatives may be replaced by a present indicative, as
in the following beautiful verse of Kalidasa:

anadhigata;manorathasya pQrvam

satagunit» eva gata mama triyami

yadi tu tava samagame tath» aiva

prasarati subhru, tatah krtl bhaveyam

[Earlier with my desire unobtained:] before I won my desire,
The night passed for me as if multiplied by a hundred:

But if it could stretch like that [upon your union:] when I am
with you,

I should be satisfied, my fair one

As in any language the conditional clause may be implied (or
conveyed by an adverbial word or phrase) rather than directly
expressed:

vyaktam n> asti— katham anyatha Vasanty api tam na pasyet?
obviously she does not (really) exist. Otherwise how would
VasantI not [be seeing:] be able to see her too?

sSdhu, sadhu! anena ratha-vegena purva:prasthitarn Vainateyam
apy Ssadayeyam, lam punas tam apakarinam Maghonah
bravo, bravo! With this speed of the chariot I could even
overtake [Vinata’s son:] Garuda [previously set out:] after
giving him a start, let alone that offender against Indra

chapter 14

chapter 14

192

Conversely, there is an idiom whereby the main clause is supd
pressed and a tentative supposition is expressed by yadi with the!
optative:

. . . pSrasari Divakaramitramama giri-nadlm asritya prati?
vasati— sa yadi vinded varttam a wandering mendicant
called Divakaramitra is living (in those parts) by a moun-
tain stream— it is possible that he might possess some in-
formation

The conditional tense may be used (in both the subordinate and
the main clause) to express a past unfulfilled condition. To quote
Kalidasa again:

yadi surabhim av 3 psyas tan-mukh>-occhvasagandham,
tava ratir abhavisyat pundarlke 1dm asmin?

If (O bee) you had discovered the sweet fragrance of her breath,

Would you (after that) have found pleasure in this lotus?

But for various reasons the conditional is not a very common
tense. Despite its origin, it is not needed in reported statements
to express a non-conditional, ‘future in the past’ sense (‘he said
he would do it’) since a direct construction with iti is available
in such circumstances. Secondly, sentences of the type ‘he wouldn’t
have done it without asking’ are expressed by the future
(Chapter 13). Thirdly, even in its special function of expressing
past unfulfilled conditions it may be replaced by the optative:

Vrsala, Raksasah khalv asau— vilaramya grhyamSnah svayam
va vinasyed yusmad-bal&ni va vinSsayet Vrsala, the per-
son (you are speaking of) is R&ksasa after all: [being
seized:] if we had seized him by force either he would have
died himself or else he would have destroyed your forces

Comparatives and superlatives

The normal comparative suffix is tara, and the normal super-
lative suffix is tama: mrdu ‘soft’, mrdutara ‘softer’, mrdutama
‘softest’. These suffixes are freely attached to adjectives," and are
also found with past participles (utplditatara ‘particularly
squeezed’) and occasionally substantives (suhrttama ‘very close
friend’).

Stems in -yams (usually -lyims) also in principle have comparative
force and are paired with superlative forms in -istha. They are pri-
mary derivatives of ancient formation, added always to monosyl-
labic stems, and do not necessarily correspond directly to any

adjective in the positive degree. What correspondence there is will
pe in meaning and/or in ultimate derivation from the same root
leather than in form. Thus ksodfjftms ‘meaner, inferior’ and
pcsodistha ‘meanest’ are derived directly from the root ksud
^trample’; and the simple adjective ksudra ‘mean’ is a separate for-
mation from the same root; wnile kanly&ms ‘smaller’ and
kanistha ‘smallest’ are related only in meaning to alpa ‘small’.
Some other examples of these stems are:

193

guru heavy, important

vrddha old

antika near

patu sharp

priya dear

bahn strong

bahu much

mahant great

(cf. srl splendour)

gariyams

jyayams elder

nediyims

patlyams

preyams

baliyams

bhOyams

mahlyams

srey&ms better

garistha

jyestha

nedistha

patistha

balistha

bhuyistha

mahistjia

srestha

It should be noted that while some of the forms listed above are
frequent, they do not exclude the use of the suffixes tara and
tama: thus ‘dearer’ may be represented by priyatara as well as by
preyams.

The other term of the comparison is represented by the ablative
(or by a form in -tab):

sv>:arthat satam gurutarS pranayi-kriy» aiva more impor-
tant to the virtuous than their own interests is carrying out
the request of a petitioner

It is not, in fact, necessary for the adjective to be in the compar-
ative degree for the use of this ablative of comparison. ‘Dearer
even than life’ may be represented simply by pranebhyo >pi
priyah. Similarly:

vajrad api kathorani, mrduni kusumad api
loio-ottarSnam cetamsi ko hi vijhatum arhati?

harder even than adamant, softer even than a flower—
who can aspire to understand the minds of those who
are above the world?

On the other hand, in Sanskrit (unlike English) the comparative
adjective by itself need not have overtly comparative force but
may be simply a more emphatic equivalent of the positive:
baliyams, rather than meaning ‘stronger’, often just means ‘no-
tably strong, particularly strong’. As a result, the comparative

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force is expressed much more by the ablative of comparison
than by the adjective, with the exception of a few adjectives c|
almost invariably comparative significance such as jy&yamsj
‘elder* and bhfiyams ‘more*. One should, in fact, beware *q|
translating ballykms as ‘stronger’ unless the context makes itj
quite plain that a comparison is intended. ^

Similar to the ablative of comparison is the ablative after an adEi
jective such as anya ‘other (than)’ or after a verb such as;
pari + ha (passive) ‘be inferior to’:

na tarhi pragtavasthayih parihlyase in that case you are [nof
inferior to your previous state:] no worse off than you were
before j

Occasionally, an analytical construction with a negative is foun<j
replacing the ablative of comparison. This is the regular con-
struction with the word varam ‘a preferable thing, the lesser of
evils’. *■

varam vandhya bharya na o avidvan putrah [a barren wife

is the preferable thing and not:] better a barren wife than
an ignorant son

‘sarvatha >m§tya:R3ksasa eva prasasyatarah’ — ‘ “na bhavan”
iti vakyasesah’ ‘at all events it is Minister Raksasa who is
more to be admired— ‘[“not you” is the rest of the sen-
tence:] than I am, you mean?’

Just as comparatives do not always have comparative force, so
superlatives need not imply literal supremacy: mrdutama may
mean simply ‘pre-eminently soft’, ‘very soft’, rather than ‘(the)
softest (of all)’. The field of comparison may be expressed either
by the genitive (sodaryanam sannSm jyesthah ‘eldest of the
six [co-uterine] brothers’) or by die locative (buddhimatsu
narah sresthah ‘men are supreme among sentient beings’).

Once again, a superlative form is not necessary to express
superlative force:

vihagesu pandit* aisa jatih [among birds this is the clever
species:] tins is the cleverest species of bird

Constructions with iti

The uses of the particle id may now be considered in greater de-
tail than was practicable when the word was first introduced
into the exercises.

id is in origin an adverb meaning ‘thus, in this way’. But its use
in this wider sense is almost entirely lost in Classical Sanskrit.

r stead, its function is to indicate that the preceding utterance is
quotation or is in some sense being treated as a quotation.
(Unfortunately, there is no corresponding formal indication of
where the quotation begins: more often than not it begins with
the beginning of the sentence, but ambiguities can occur.)
Although in principle (with rare exceptions in verse) iti is placed
immediately after the quotation, it is not necessarily enclitic.
: After a long quotation, iti may be the first word in a new para-
graph or a new stanza of verse. Or it may even refer to the words
of another speaker.

iti srutva devah pram&nam having heard (what I have told
you), Your Majesty is the judge (of what to do)

vatsa, ity ev> aham pariplavamdnaihidayah pramugdho >smi
my dear (brother), from just such (thoughts as you have
voiced) my heart is trembling and I am faint

195

The construction with iti may represent both direct and indirect
discourse in English. In the latter case various appropriate
changes must be made: according to circumstance, T and ‘you’
may be represented by ‘he’ etc., ‘is’ by ‘was’, ‘here’ by ‘there’,
‘now’ by ‘then’, and so forth.

For greater clarity, the words of the iti clause in all the Sanskrit
examples which follow have been isolated by inverted commas.

aye ‘Candraguptad aparaktSn purusSn janam>’ ity upaksiptam
anena oh, he has hinted [‘I know men disloyal to
Candragupta’:] that he knows men disloyal to Candragupta

tato bhagavaty Arundhatl ‘n> aham vadhfl-virahitam Ayodhyam
gamisyam>’ ity aha thereupon the revered Arundhatl said
[‘I wul not go . . .’:] that she would not go to an Ayodhya
bereft of its bride

abhfic ca ghosanS ‘svah kam>-otsava’ id and there was a
proclamation [‘tomorrow (there will be) a Love Festival’:]
that the next day was to be a Love Festival

However; the principle that the words of the iti clause should
represent the original form of the quotation is not invariable.
Occasionally in practice a first or second person form belonging
in the main sentence intrudes into the iti clause to avoid a
clumsy third person periphrasis. Theoretically, this can lead to
ambuiguity* but context or common sense will normally make
the meaning plain.

. bhartrdarike, ‘tvam asvasthaisarir»’ eti parijan&d upalabhya
mahadevl prSpta mistress, the Queen has arrived, having

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heard from her attendants [‘ “you” are unwell’:] that you|
are unwell (The words actually addressed to the Queen\
would have been ‘the Princess is unwell’.)

A verb of telling, being told, etc. need not be expressed after id.
From its original meaning of ‘in this way’ it can naturally imply
‘with these words’— becoming in effect the equivalent of ity
uktva. Thus a speech may conclude with id padayoh pap&ta
*with these words (she) fell at (the other’s) feet’, or id lam rid as-
mayata ‘so (saying) she smiled slightly’, ‘—she said, with a slight
smile’. This use is especially common in the stage-directions of
plays. A line of dialogue will be followed, for example, by hi
Madhavam Slingati ‘[so saying] she embraces Madhava’.

The usage permits great flexibility of construction, since
the iti clause may represent not actual dialogue but the sub-
stance of what is said:

‘es3 ku:matir na kalySn»’ iti nivarayantyam mayi vana-vasaya
kopat prasthita [upon my restraining (her) by saying ‘this
ill notion is not beneficial’:] when I remonstrated that no
good would come of such wrong-headedness, she went off
in a temper to live in the forest

‘mahan ayam prasida’ iti grhitavati she accepted (it) [with
the words ‘this is a great favour’:] with grateful tbanks

‘pita te Canakyena ghatita’ iti rahasi trasayitvS Bhagura-
yanen> apavahitah Parvataka-putro Malayaketuh after
secretly frightening him by claiming that Canakya had his
father murdered, Bhagurayana helped Parvataka’s son
Malayaketu to escape ( Note here how the second person in
the Sanskrit avoids the ambiguities of the English third
person forms.)

That iti clauses, as well as combining with verbs meaning ‘tell’
or ‘hear’ (‘be told’), may be used with verbs of knowing, think-
ing, supposing, etc. needs little illustration:

‘tat-sahacarinibhih sakhi te hrt»’ eti me hrdayam asankate
my heart suspects that your friend’s wife was carried off by
the companions of that (goddess)

But just as iti can be used without a verb of saying actually ex-
pressed to mean ‘with these words’, so it can be used without a
verb of thinking actually expressed to mean ‘with these
thoughts, with this in mind’, iti thus becomes the equivalent of
iti matva, and represents English ‘because’ or ‘since’ where these
have the sense of ‘on the grounds that’.

‘prana-parity&gen> api raksaniySh suhr d-asava’ iti kathay&mi
I speak out because a friend’s life must be saved even at the
cost of sacrificing (one’s own) life

‘kathora;garbh»’ eti n> anita >si (we) did not bring you (with
us) because (you were) late in pregnancy

aham tvaya tasminn avasare nir_dayam nighnaty api ‘str»’ ity
avajnlta on that occasion though I struck (you) fiercely,
you despised me [thinking ‘(she is) a woman’:] as a woman

?As well as expressing statements and suppositions, iti clauses are
;used to some extent to represent situations— ‘the possibility
ithat’, ‘the fact that’. The first of the following examples, where
■a finite verb occurs and where a relative construction with yat
-might perhaps have been used, is less typical than the others:

‘tatrabhavan Kanvah sSsvate brahmani vartate, iyam ca vah
sakhi tasy> atinaj»’ eti katham etat? how is it that His
Honour Kanva lives in perpetual chastity and (yet) this
friend of yours is his daughter?

bhagavan, ‘pr5g abhipreta-siddhih, pascad darsanam’ ity
apurvah khalu vo >nugrahah revered one, for the fulfil-
ment of (our) wishes to be first and the audience (with you)
to come afterwards (constitutes) a quite unprecedented
kindness on your part

athava ‘kamam a:satyasandha’ iti param ayaso, na punah
satru-vahcana-paribhOtih but in fact to be wilfully false
to one’s word is a greater disgrace than to be beaten by an
enemy’s tricks

iti clauses have so far been considered from the point of view of
their relation to the main sentence. The examples quoted have
been of clauses of statement. But iti clauses may also take the form
of commands or questions. Where these may best be represented
by direct speech in English, they require no special mention.
Elsewhere they correspond broadly to the syntactical categories
of indirect command and indirect question, and may be treated
from that point of view.

197

Clauses of command

Indirect command in English is generally expressed by an accu-
sative and infinitive construction— ‘I told him to do it’.

tatrabhavata Kanvena vayam ajiiapitah ‘Sakuntalahetor
vanaspatibhyah kusurnSny 3harat>’ eti His Honour Kanva

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has ordered us [‘bring blossoms . . to bring blossoms
from the trees for Sakuntala

As well as by an imperative, the command may be expressed in
Sanskrit by other means such as a gerundive:

‘raksanlyS RAksasasya piM’ ity ary>-sSdesah His Excellency’s
orders are [‘Rlksasa’s life should be protected’:] to protect
Raksasa’s life’

By the use of iti in its ity uktva or iti matvS sense, the equivalent
of a clause of purpose may be obtained.

nanv id&nim eva mayS tatra Kalahamsakah presitah
‘pracchannam upagamya Nandan>-5vasa-pravrttim upa-
labhasv>’ eti why, I have just now sent Kalahamsaka there
[with the words ‘approaching stealthily find out . . .’:] to find
out discreetly what has been happening in Nandana’s house

‘ma bhOd asrama-pid»’ eti parimeyajpurahsarau (the two of
them travelled) with a limited entourage [with the thought
‘let there not be affliction of the hermitage’:] lest they
should trouble the hermitage

Interrogative clauses

These, of course, often occur with verbs meaning ‘enquire’ or
‘speculate’:

tad ySvad grhinim ahflya prcchami ‘asti kim api prStaraso na
v»’ eti so Fll just call my wife and ask [‘is there breakfast
at all or not?’:] whether she has any breakfast for me or not

kim tu ‘katham asmabhir upagantavya’ iti sampradharayami
but I am wondering how we should approach him

Indirect questions also occur with verbs of knowing or stating,
and here it is interesting to note another modification of the
principle that the words of an iti clause represent a direct quo-
tation: what is known or stated is the answer to the question.
There is, in fact, no direct speech equivalent of the indirect in-
terrogative in ‘he said who had come’, unless it is a statement of
the form ‘such-and-such a person has come’.

arye, yady evam tat kathaya sarvatah ‘ka esa vrttanta’ iti
Lady, if so tlien tell (us) exactly what this is that has been
happening

na tv evam vidmah ‘kataro >yam ayusmatoh Kusa; Lavayor’ iti
but we do not know [the following,] which of the two
princes Kusa and Lava he is

Not infrequently, the id is omitted, so that the interrogative pro-
noun has the function in itself of introducing an indirect ques-
tion:

pasyasi ka vartta you see what the news is

na jane kim idam valkalanam sadrsam, utaho jatanam
samudtam I do not know if this is in keeping with the
bark garment (of an ascetic), or in accord with his matted
locks

jnayatam bhoh kim etat ho there, find out what that is

Sometimes a relative pronoun serves to introduce the same kind
of clause:

199

brQhi yad upalabdham tell me what (you) have discovered

tad etat kartsnyena yo >yam, ya c> eyam, yatha o asya sravana-
sikharam samarOdha, tat sarvam aveditam so (I) have
told it all completely— who he is, what that (spray of blos-
soms) is, and how it [attained:] came to be placed at the tip
of his ear

Once again, id may be used in its ity uktva and id matva senses:
thus ‘kim kim’ id sahas» opasrtya ‘rushing up [with the words
“what (is it), what (is it)?”:] to find out what was happening’;
‘kuto >yam’ ity uparQdha;kutOhala ‘with her curiosity mounting
as to where it came from’.

Word repetition

Word repetition in Sanskrit may be employed for emphasis (in-
tensive or iterative use). Thus sadhu sadhu ‘bravo, bravo!’; hato
hatas Candavarma ‘Candravarman is murdered, murdered!’;
pacati pacati ‘he cooks and cooks, he’s always cooking’ (an ex-
ample given by Sanskrit grammarians); mandam mandam ‘very
slowly’; punah punah ‘again and again’.

Repetition may also have a distributive sense (‘each various
one’). This is typical of pronouns. Thus sv3n sv§n balan anayanti
‘they bring their various children’; tat tat klranam utpadya ‘pro-
ducing [this and that reason:] various reasons’. Similarly with
relatives: yo yah (alternative to yah kas cit) ‘whichever person,
whosoever’; yatM yatha . . . tatha tatha ‘in proportion as, the
more that’.

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Vocabulary

adhyavasiyah resolution
antadhyavasSyah irresolution,
hesitation

anilah wind, breeze
anusta undesired, unpleasant
anurigah passion, love
antah end

antahpuram women’s quarters
(of palace), harem
antarita hidden, concealed
apadesah pretext
apara other, different
apasarpanam getting away, es-
cape

abhihtsin desirous, anxious
arthin having an object, want-
ing, petitioning
a;sesa [without remainder:]
complete, whole, all
a:sobhana unpleasant, awful
ahamahamika rivalry
adarah care, trouble; adaramkr
take care (to)

Sdhoranah elephant-driver
apanna;sattva [to whom a living
creature has occurred:] preg-
nant

3rti f. affliction, distress
ardra moist, tender
arya-putrah [son of] noble-man;
v voc. noble sir

indriyam (organ or faculty of)
sense

uttama uppermost, supreme,
top

unmath ah shaking, disturbance;
manmath>-onmathah pangs
of love

upakarah help, service
upanyasah mention, allusion
upasthanam (religious) atten-
dance

ekaldn alone

Aiksvaka descended from King
Dcsvaku

katara timid, nervous
kananam forest
karmukam bow
ldmvadanti rumour
kusum>&yudhah [the flower
weaponed:] god of love
kfilam bank, shore
krpahi compassionate
kolahalah clamour
khedah exhaustion
ganika courtesan
gandhah smell, scent
gariyams important, consider-
able; worthy/worthier of re-
spect

gahanam dense place
gir f. speech, voice, tone
gunah merit; strand, string
ghranam smelling, (sense of)
smell

candana mJn. sandal, sandal-
wood-tree
cfltah mango-tree
jaratha old, decrepit
jalapadah goose
jyayams older, elder
taru m. tree; taru-gahanam
thicket of trees, wood
tambiilam betel
daksina right, on the right hand
dunnimittam ill omen
drsti f. gaze
drohah injury, hostility
dvandvam pair; dvandvasam-
prah3rah single combat, duel
dv5r f. door

dharma-vit learned in the sa-
cred law

navaiyauvanam [fresh] youth
nikhila entire
nipuna clever sharp

I

jnirbhara excessive, full
nivedaka announcing, indicating
panca five

patu sharp; patiyams sharper
pad m. lord; husband
padam step

paravasa in another’s power,
helpless

parimalah perfume
pSthah recitation, reading; part
(in play)

[Attain vessel, receptacle; wor-
thy recipient; actor; p3tra-
vargah cast (of play)
potakah yoimg animal/plant;
cflta-potakah young mango-
tree

pratikriya remedy, remedying
pradhina principal, important
prastSvah prelude
prUsidah mansion; terrace; (up-
stairs] room
banah arrow
bisam lotus fibre
Bharatah pr. n.
bhajanam receptacle, box
bharya wife
bhflyams more, further
matta in rut, rutting
madah intoxication
madhukarah, madhukart bee,
honey-bee

mfircha faint, swoon; madana-
mfircha amorous swoon
mfllam root, basis, foundation

mrgattsnika mirage
ram has n. speed
rhpam form; beauty
laghu light; brief
locanam eye
vargah group
vigrahah separation; body
vitapa m.ln. branch, bush,
thicket

vitarkah conjecture, doubt
vipinam forest
vilaksa disconcerted, ashamed
vihvala tottering, unsteady
vithika row, grove
s as tram knife, sword
samskarah preparation, adorn-
ment

sa-phala [having fruit:] full-
filled

sampraharah fighting, combat
sammfidha confused
saras n. lake

sarathi m. driver of chariot
suiratam love-making
surabhi fragrant
su;labha easily got, natural
skhalanam failure, lapse
svapnah dream
svaminl mistress
svedah sweat
Hari m., pr. n.
harsah joy, delight
hastin m. elephant
hita beneficial; well-disposed,
good (friend)

201

ati + vah caws, (ativahayati) spend (time)

adhi 4- ruh (I adhirohati) ascend, mount

anu + bandh (IX anubadhnati) pursue, importune

anu + lip (VI anulimpati) anoint

anu + vrt (I anuvartate) go after; attend upon

apa + ya (II apayati) go away, depart

abhi + ghra (I abhijighrati) smell

abhi + bhfi (I abhibhavati) overpower

abhi + syand (I abhisyandate) flow

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202

ava + gam (I avagacchati) understand; suppose, consider
ava + dhr caus. (avadhiraya ti) determine, resolve
ava + lamb (I avalambate) ding to, hold on to
a + gam caus. (Sgamayati) acquire
a + ghra (I ajighrati) smell
a + car (I acarad) conduct oneself, act, do
a + svas caus. (asvasayad) cause to breathe freely, comfort
ut + cal (I uccalad) move away; rise
ut + stha (I utdsthad) stand up, get up
ut + as (IV udasyati) throw up, throw out, push out
upa + kr (VIE upakarod) furnish, provide
upa + ksip (VI upaksipati) hint at
upa + jan (IV upajayate, p.p. upajata) come into being, be
roused

upa + stha caus. (upasthapayad) cause to be neai; fetch, bring up
upa + i (II upaid) approach, come to
kip (I kalpate) be suitable, conduce to, turn to (dat.)
trp caus. (tarpayad) satisfy
nigadayati (denom.) fetter, bind
ni + sam caus. (nisamayati) perceive, observe
pari + trai (II paritrad) rescue, protect
prati + drs (I pratipasyati) see
prati + ni + vr t (I pratinivartate) return
piad + pad (IV pradpadyate) assent, admit
pra + budh caus. (prabodhayati) inform, admonish
pra + svap (II prasvapiti) fall asleep
pra + hi (V prahinod) despatch, send
bhid (VII bhinatd) split, separate
vi + leas (I vikasati) burst, blossom, bloom
vi + car (I vicarati) move about, roam
vi + car caus. (vicSrayad) deliberate, ponder
vi + lok caus. (vilokayati) look at, watch
vi + srp (I visarpad) be (Mused, spread
sam + jan (IV samjayate, p.p. samjata) come into being,
be aroused

sam + a + car (I samacarati) conduct oneself, act, do

spand (I spandate) quiver

syand (I syandate) flow, move rapidly

agratah in front of {gen.)
ad: (karmadhdraya prefix)
extreme(ly)
api nama if only
kadacit. perhaps
jhatiti suddenly

nu khalu (enclitic stressing
interrogative now (who etc.)
I wonder?

sakasam to [the presence of]
yatha yatha . . . tatha tatha in
proportion as, the more that

Exercise 14a finraro httot gst srfr ftrefir n i at 3

TaijTOTOit, i? i atnrftin^it yPuRMdwii) 13 i
5ft*nr WcM*l¥i itf«Rf:m I^JjTh) TOlTO ipT: mi

Urnm^n^ ! MRr4fbirildVl/l<*iWIT ?fiT *t ITOt, lil

&TO#3?T*r g f tHT g Ht Ifc 1 tg&m TORPf : ^ ^5

mi«y '{fyj&tf ftt <teqfirf?r 14 1 tot faro didA-imiivta tprotprs ^pesot:
II | 3Tpr "TO §<l<M^il1U|cftl|fcd^J<4) faiftT Ho I TOIftft TO v»i|l4Rr4 :
TO mdlTO Rff B l fiffi : IHI TO):

P«iq;(uipH i fc<m i 3) •ms-. g fia r a^ i TOTC : Hraivwi i TO fgfoi mi
wf^ww i nfe TOfaroarcTO tot TOf m i 3n%? to
fos puro nn <n3ure ra t Ha<K«)cf i fii*for& i^i

mi

H$i ssf^rrota^ toi*t nfwifu: yfiflr ffir TrijaroTOtaTOT ^
M^aWTOft I x 'a I ifc 5> faK^TO : Mfdfll3«nifo<ll 3 ^<11^1 nfoff
^ y<f)<ufl 1141 3 r 4 <h ^ 4 »to to h? nfw^y umi^

Bftffl?ffNqftTOII#Tn fc4TO<TOI4* l *k mi TlfTOfaroit TOT

«n»dw>frft *tb)to, Ro i t ^rotar TOgfro^rohofr Trcgst

^(il-b^q TFJITOTOTOhl 111 I 4M?l«l4MRjJ u(tl|f«|«it TOI <U4

T^ERITOTO TOITORTOT: TO TOR: TOJT IJfTOT TISJTOgg^T ?fil
mi ^ <J*lftd fro^ft TOTO Tlfif TOTg TOT^ I?? I

fTOini^IRTTOV^I ST^TOPW TOT TOT nw TT TOT TOT
qa<*^»H I * ll l TOTO TO4$fl»Hll l ¥ l f*IMW»<lfrt l Pl UTO^ftraTT
TOTOTORTT^ollft ^T JtofWll ft^OlftTOTlt Ijfat diRR^

mi qj*nfi»rar TT^t *jfefir cH i P^y-tiii fnhfrorf^ sfir s>n^
SfaHjTO^TOftTOT rd^^TO^f T filrRI I ^rHm-ririlcI TnfTOlPra

' tr rr,i r r - 1

[ILUC^LriiriULi^L^L £^C^K.CC^UlEL:£iriLiLL£Ui:LCL.

#^H%rt f^ppirowjfon^ i r k 1 1

Exercise 14b Translate past tenses by the imperfect except in
sentence 23.

1 Latavya, do *you know whose arrow this is? 2 Ah you fool!
Are *you more-leamed-in-the-sacred-law than our preceptor?
3 And I observed in that hermitage in the shade of a young-mango-
tree an ascetic of-melancholy-appearance. 4 The writing might
be spoiled, friend, by the sweat-from-(my)-fingers. 5 What then
is this great hesitation at every step ? 6 And so saying she drew
it (pattrika the letter) from the betel-box and showed it (to me).

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1

[7771 7 The allusion to (such) considerable love-and-service is indeed
opportune [avasare]. 8 Raivataka, tell our-driver to bring
the chariot complete-with- [sa_] -bow- and-arrows. 9 He mdy
even, perhaps, ashamed-of-his-lapse- from-self-control, do some-
thing dreadful [anista]. 10 Now [ySvat] I heard that it was
Malatl who was the cause-of his "pangs-of-love. 11 And she
became mistress-of his-entire-harem. iz Tell (me) what further
benefit I (can) provide for you. 13 After speaking thus he Ms
silent, his-gaze-fixed-on-my- face (to see) what I [/.] would say.
14 Whereabouts then in this forest may I acquire
news-of-my-beloved? 15 He forsooth [kila], (feeling)

compassionate, comforted those people in a tender tone and

jg^l asked the courtesan the reason-for-her-distress. 16 Your

' Highness, $akatadasa will never ever (na kadacid api] admit in

front of minister- Raksasa that he wrote it. 17 Why my dear
BhagurSyana, minister-Raksasa is the dearest and best (of
friends) to us. 18 *You [/.] having departed, I stayed alone for
a little while [muhOrtam iva], and my-doubts-aroused as to what
he was now doing I returned and with-my • body -concealed-
in-the-thickets watched the place. 19 If only this prelude does
not, like a mirage, turn in the end to disappointment, zo Come
to me (who am) PurQravas, returned from attendance-upon-
the-Sun, and tell me what (I) must protect *you \f. pi] from, zi
While speaking thus I \f.] managed, with limbs unsteady-
from-the-exhaustion-of-my-amorous-swoon to get up by holding
on to her. And (when I had) risen, my right eye quivered, indi-
cating-an-ill-omen. And my-anxieties-roused, I thought, ‘here is
something untoward [apara] hinted at by fate’, zz if (you) con-
sider R&ksasa worthier of respect than we are, then give him this
sword of ours. Z3 To start with [t&vat] friend, I should like to
hear what the poisoners-and-others employed-by- me have done
since Candragupta’s entry-into-the-city. Z4 Yet if the descen-
dant of Dksvaku King R&ma were to see you such (as you are),
then his heart would flow with tenderness, zy Just as I \f.] was
pondering in this way, the love natural-to-youth, bywhich-
distinctions-of-merit-and*demerit-are-not-pondered (but which
is) solely-partial-to-beauty made me as helpless as the intoxica-
tion-of-the-season-of-blossoms does the honey-bee.

cn

Paradigms: Perfect and aorist tenses; ahan

Perfect tense

The perfect tense is formed by reduplication of the root and the
addition of a special set of personal endings. As in athematic
present stems, the three parasmaipada singular forms are strong,
involving guna or sometimes vrddhi of the root, while the other
forms are weak. Thus from drs ‘see’, dadarsa ‘he saw’, dadrsuh
‘they saw’.

The vowel of the reduplication is i/u for roots containing 1/fi, a
for other roots. Initial a reduplicates to 3: as ‘be’, asa, 3suh. Initial
i reduplicates to I (from i + i) in the weak forms, iye (i + e) in the
strong: is ‘want’, iyesa, Isuh. yaj ‘sacrifice’, vac ‘speak’, and a
number of other roots liable to samprasarana, reduplicate with
samprasSrana of the semi-vowel: iy3ja, ijuh (i + ij-); uv3ca,ficuh
(u + uc-); similarly, from svap ‘sleep’, susvipa, susupuh.

The strong grade is normally guna. In the third person singular
it is vrddhi in the case of roots ending in a vowel or in a followed
by a single consonant— in other words, where guna would pro-
duce a prosodically light syllable. Thus drs, dadarsa, but kr,
cakSra; ni, niniya; pat, pap&ta. This vrddhi is optional in the first
person singular and such verbs may therefore distinguish the
first from the third person singular whereas these forms are nec-
essarily identical in other verbs. Thus cakara ‘I did,’ cak&ra ‘I
did/he did’; ninaya ‘I led’, niniya ‘I led/he led’; papata ‘I fell’,
papita ‘I fell/he fell’. Roots ending in -3 make a first and third
person form in -au: sth3 ‘stand’, tasthau ‘I stood/he stood’.

The terminations -itha, -iva, -ima, -ise, -ivahe, -imahe contain
a connecting i which is omitted in a few verbs ending in r or u.

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r

including kr ‘do’ and sru ‘hear’: thus susruma ‘we heard’. In th<|
second person singular form -hha, the i is omitted in a numbe^
of other verbs as well, and is optional in yet others, including
those ending in *

The form of weak stem which requires most comment is that oil
roots with medial a. Sometimes this a is eliminated: gam ‘gpj|
jag&na, jagmuh; han ‘kill’, jaghSna, jaghnuh. Similarly, by a
process of internal sandhi the root sad ‘sit’ gives sas&da, sedaS
(from *$asduh). But the analogy of this last form is followed by]
other roots with medial a if die initial consonant reduplicates
unchanged: pat ‘fall, fly’, pap&ta, petuh (the expected form pap-]
tuh does occur in Vedic); tan ‘stretch’, tatlna, tenuh.

The root bhQ ‘be’ is irregular in reduplicating with a and in fail r
ing to strengthen to guna or vrddhi: babh&va, babhfivuh.

The root vid ‘know’ forms a perfect without reduplication
which has a present sense: veda ‘he knows’, viduh ‘they know’]

The root ah ‘say’ is very defective. It occurs only in the perfect
and only in the third person forms aha, ahatuh, ahuh, and the
second person forms attha and ahathuh. It has a present sense—
‘he says’.

The atmanepada forms of the perfect may have a passive as well
as a middle sense— ninye ‘was led’, jagrhe ‘was seized’, etc.

The atmanepada participle in -ana attached to the perfect stem
scarcely occurs at all in Classical Sanskrit; and the parasmaipada
participle in -vims is rare, with the exception of vidvams, which
is formed from the non-reduplicated perfect of vid referred to
above and is used as an adjective meaning *wise, learned’.

Perfect forms may be made from causative and other derivative
verbs by means of the periphrastic perfect. This arose from the
combination of the accusative of an abstract noun (not other-
wise used) with the perfect of the verb kr: darsay&m cakSra ‘Pie
did a showing:] he showed’. In the parasmaipada, however, kr is
normally replaced in Classical Sanskrit by the perfect of as (very
occasionally of bhfl): darsay&n 3sa ‘he showed’, darsay&m asuh
‘they showed’. This formation is also utilised by one or two sim-
ple verbs which do not form an ordinary perfect: e.g. Iks ‘look’,

Iks am cakre ‘he looked’.

• •

Despite its name (and its Indo-European origins) the perfect is
not used in Classical Sanskrit to express any stative or perfec-
tive sense. It is a tense of historical narrative, which according
to the grammarians should not be used to describe events within

?'

the personal experience of the speaker. In consequence the first
and second person forms are not at all common and the tense as
a whole is not much used in dialogue. Its frequent use is a char-
acteristic of narrative poetry, both epic and Classical, as in the
extract given in Exercise 15a from the Kumdrasambhava of
jpliddsa.

Lorist tense

The aorist and imperfect tenses are specialisations of a single
past tense characterised by the augment and the ‘secondary’ end-
ings. From the point of view of its formation, the imperfect
might be looked on as an ‘aorist of the present stem’. An aorist
is an aorist, and not an imperfect, if no corresponding present
forms exist. Thus aySt ‘he went’, from yi ‘go’, and atudat ‘he
struck’, from tud ‘strike’, are imperfect forms because they cor-
respond to the presents yati ‘he goes’ (class II) and tudati ‘he
strikes’ (class VI). But adhat ‘he put’ and agamat ‘he went’ are
aorist forms derived directly from the root, since dha ‘put’ and
gam ‘go’ form presents of a different kind, dadhati (class III) and
gacchati (class I), with corresponding imperfect forms adadhat
and agacchat. These remarks concern formation: in meaning an
imperfect form (such as ayat) should differ from an aorist form
(such as adhat), although the distinction becomes of little im-
portance in Classical Sanskrit.

Some forms of aorist, the sigmatic aorists, are characterised by
the addition of some variety of suffixal s. These aorists are more
sharply differentiated from an imperfect, since no present stem
employs such a suffix. There are seven main varieties of aorist,
three non-sigmatic and four sigmatic. The endings of two of the
non-sigmatic and one of the sigmatic aorists are thematic, i.e.
precisely similar to those of the imperfect of ni. The other types
of aorist have athematic endings comparable with the imperfect
of athematic verbs but without the same pattern of strong and
weak forms. In all athematic types the third person plural paras-
maipada ending is -uh (as in die imperfect of class m and some
class II verbs). In all athematic types of the sigmatic aorist, the
second and third person singular parasmaipada forms end in ih
and It respectively.

Non-sigmatic aorists

1 Root aorist (small class: athematic endings; parasmaipada
only). This type of aorist is confined in the Classical period to a
number of roots ending in a and to bhO. [The class was originally

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much larger and other isolated forms of it survive— notably t®|
supply the second and third person singular atmanepada in th$|
sigmatic aorist of some verbs: thus from kr ‘do’, aldkrslh, akarsitj
parasmaipada, but akrthlh, akrta atmanepada.] The third petri
son plural ending an in abtfivan is anomalous.

a a -aorist (thematic endings; weak grade of root). The class is^
not particularly large, and atmanepada forms are uncommon,:
The class includes two reduplicated forms: pat ‘fall’, apaptat;
and vac ‘speak’, avocat (a-va-uc-at).

3 Reduplicated aorist (thematic endings; root syllable light,
reduplicated syllable heavy; sense normally causative). This
form is analogous to the periphrastic perfect. It provides the or-
dinary aorist of one or two verbs: thus dru ‘run’, adudruvat ‘he
ran’. But, while formed directly from the root, it normally sup-
plies the aorist of causative and class X verbs: ni, niyayati ‘he
causes to lead’, aninayat ‘he caused to lead’; cur, corayati ‘he
steals’, acficurat ‘he stole’. Vowels other than u reduplicate as i.
The reduplicated i or u lengthens to I/O if the reduplicated syllar
ble would otherwise be light. The root syllable does not appear
in guna grade unless it can continue to be prosodically light (and
not invariably even then— cf. adudruvat).

grah seize
jan be born
drs see
muc free
ji conquer
mr die

ajigrahat he caused to be seized
ajljanat he begat
adldrsat he showed
amfimucat he caused to be freed
ajljayat he caused to be conquered
amimarat he put to death

If the root syllable even in its reduced grade remains heavy, the
reduplicated syllable is light. But even in such verbs a special
shortening of the root often occurs, to preserve the normal
rhythm of ‘heavy-light’. Thus from dip ‘shine’, either adidipat
or adidipat ‘caused to shine, kindled’.

Sigmatic aorists

4 s -aorist (suffix s; athematic endings; vrddhi in paras-
maipada, guna or weak grade in itmanepada). All roots take
vrddhi throughout the parasmaipada; in the atmanepada,
roots ending in f or & take guna, others remain unstrength-
ened. The paradigm of dah illustrates complications caused by
internal sandhi.

5 is -aorist (suffix is; athematic endings; vrddhi or guna in
parasmaipada, guna in atmanepada). This is the suffix s added

with connecting i. The basic grade is guna, but in the paras-
maipada final i/u/r is strengthened to vrddhi (thus ensuring a
heavy syllable before the suffix), and medial a is sometimes
strengthened to 3 and sometimes remains unchanged.

6 sis -aorist (small class: suffix sis; athematic endings; paras-
maipada only). This aorist (inflected like the is aorist) is formed
only from a number of roots ending in -a and from nam ‘bow’,
yam ‘hold’ and ram ‘take pleasure’.

7 sa -aorist (small class: suffix s with thematic endings; weak-
grade). This aorist is confined to a number of roots containing
i/u/r and ending in some consonant which by internal sandhi
combines with the s of the suffix to make ks. In the atmanepada,
three of the terminations are athematic— i, ath&m and &tam.

8 Aorist passive. There is a formation, independent of the types
of aorist listed above, which conveys the sense of a third person
singular aorist passive: e.g. ak3ri ‘was done’, adarsi ‘was seen’,
etc. The augment is prefixed to the root, and a suffix, i, is added.
Medial i/u/r take guna; otherwise vrddhi is normal. A y is in-
serted after roots ending in 3: thus ajS3yi ‘was known’.

The aorist tense, like the imperfect, expresses simple past state-
ments. In particular it is supposedly the most appropriate tense
where the speaker is describing a recent event. But this function
was usurped at an early stage by participial construct tions, and
the aorist became a learned formation little used in simple
Sanskrit. In the Classical literature it takes its place beside the
imperfect and the perfect as a narrative tense. Despite its com-
plicated variety of forms, the aorist is easy to spot because of the
augment and the secondary terminations ; the best way to ac-
quire familiarity with it is to read extensively in a work which
makes use of it (e.g. the Dasakumaracarita of Dandin).

Injunctive

In the Vedic language unaugmented forms of the aorist or im-
perfect are often used with imperative or subjunctive force and
are then described as ‘injunctive’ forms. This usage has disap-
peared in Classical Sanskrit, with the following exception. The
particle m3 may be used with the unaugmented forms of the
aorist, or very occasionally the imperfect, to express prohibition.
Thus m3 bhaista ‘do not fear’, m»alvam mamsthah ‘do not sup-
pose so’, m3 biiQt ‘let it not be’, m3 >dhyavasyah sShasam ‘do not
resolve (anything) rash’.

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Precative

The preeative, or benedictive, is a kind of aorist optative. In
Classical Sanskrit it is used only in the parasmaipada. It is
formed by the addition of the suffix yds to the unstrengthened
root, which appears as before the passive suffix ya. It is used to
express wishes and prayers:

atvirahitau dampati bhuySstSm may husband and wife be
unseparated

kriyad aghSn&m MaghavS vighataxn may Indra cause elimi-
nation of evils

ahan ‘day’

The neuter substantive ahan ‘day’ has ahar as its middle stem.
The form ahar is thus nominative, vocative and accusative
singular; and also the normal stem form as the prior member of
a compound ; it has, however the further irregularity of ap-
pearing before the voiced middle case endings as aho (as if it
were from abas )— thus instrumental, dative and ablative dual
ahobhySm etc. As the last member of a compound it appears as
a (masculine) short a stem in one of two forms, aha or ahna.

antaram

Among the meanings of the word antaram is ‘interval, differ-
ence’. At the end of a determinative compound, as well as
meaning literally ‘a difference of’, it can signify ‘a different — ,
another—’: thus varn>-antaram ‘a difference of colour’ or ‘a
different colour’.

likhit>-antaram asy> aniyStam bring another [thing written
of him:] example of his writing

Sastrapani, a&rumukha

There are a few bahuvflhis in which the second member ex-
presses the location of the first. Thus sastra=p£ni ‘sword-handed’,
i.e. ‘[having a hand in which there- is a sword:] whose hand holds
a sword’; asru ; mukha ‘tear-faced’, i.e. ‘[having tears on the face:],
tearful-faced’. Grammarians analysed such compounds by- pit-
ting the second member in the locative case: e.g. gadu ; kantha
‘goitre-necked’, gaduh kanthe yasya ‘on whose neck there is a
goitre’. Similarly, ‘in whose hand there is a sword’ etc.

Sanskrit metre

Mention was made in Chapter i of the quantitative nature of
Sanskrit verse and of the rules for distinguishing light and heavy
syllables. A general description of Classical Sanskrit metre is
given here, and individual details of the commoner metres will
be found in the grammatical section at the back of the book. The
subject is often omitted from standard Sanskrit grammars,
which is a pity, since Sanskrit poetry cannot be fully appreciated
by those who are metrically deaf. Much of a poet’s creative ef-
fort is obviously lost upon the reader for whom a poem might
just as well have been written in prose. The need, of course, is
not simply to understand metrical structure analytically but to
be able to feel the rhythm of the verse without conscious effort
as it is read or recited. (A practical advantage of this ability, and
a test of it, is that one may, through simply noticing that a line
does not scan, be alerted to some of the small misprints which
plague many editions of Sanskrit texts.) While learning to mas-
ter the rhythms of Sanskrit verse, there is no harm in exaggerat-
ing to any degree that is helpful the natural tendency in Sanskrit
recitation to prolong and stress the heavy syllables.

211

cn

The anustubh metre

This is the bread-and-butter metre of Sanskrit verse, comparable
in function and importance with the Latin hexameter or the
English iambic pentameter. As well as being frequently used in
Classical poetry, it is the staple metre of Sanskrit epic and of the
many didactic works composed in verse. It is a simple, easily
handled metre, since the pattern of light and heavy syllables is
not fixed throughout the line.

As with other Sanskrit metres, a normal anustubh stanza is di-
visible into four quarters, called padas. The word pada literally
means ‘foot’, and the latter word is therefore better avoided
where possible in discussing Sanskrit versification, although in
the case of the anustubh each pada falls naturally for purposes
of analysis into two groups of four syllables which might well be
termed ‘feet’ in the English sense. The last group in each half-
verse, i.e. the last group in the second and fourth padas, consists

of a double iambus: . Any of the preceding four syllables

may in principle be either light or heavy. If we represent such a
syllable of indeterminate quantity by °, the pattern of the second

or fourth pada is therefore « « « <> . In the first and third

pidas the pattern of the last two syllables is reversed, which
gives oooov—— ^

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212

on

An anustubh stanza thus consists of two half-verses of sixtees
syllables each and has the following basic rhythm (with the sigy
' indicating a rhythmically prominent syllable):

OOOOw“ — ''^OOOd“ —

O O O O *•» ■— ™ .. /o O O fl « — « “ (|

The syncopation at the end of the first and third padas gives a
feeling of suspense which is resolved at the end of each half-verse.

There should be a caesura (a break between words— or some-
times a break between two members of a long compound) at the
end of each p&da. But the break between the second and third
p^das, i.e. at the half-verse, is stronger than that between first
and second or third and fourth. Ulus the break at the half-verse
is treated for purposes of sandhi as the end of a sentence,
whereas sandhi is obligatory at all points within the half-verse.

The scheme given above is subject to the following qualifica-
tions:

i The final syllable of the second and fourth padas (as in
other metres) and also of the first and third padas may, in
fact, be either heavy or light. (It was given as above merely to
emphasise the underlying rhythm.)

z No plda may begin °-~<> (i.e. either the second or the third
syllable must always, be heavy).

3 The second or fourth pida must not end (i.e. in three

iambi).

4 The above pattern for the first or third p 3 da is the pathy&
(regular) form. The less common vipula (permitted) forms are
given at the back of the book.

The first stanza of Exercise 15 scans as follows:

e vam v 3 di ni de var sau / par sve pi tu ra dho mu khl |
ll la ka ma la pat tr§ ni / ga na y 3 ma sa par va fi||

Even (samacatuspadT) metres

In addition to the anustubh. Classical literature employs a wide
range of more elaborate metres, some of the commoner of which
are listed at the back of the book (Appendix 3). In most of these,
each pada is identical and consists of a fixed pattern of light and

heavy syllables normally between eleven and twenty-one in num- fZTZ
bet Thus the fourteen-syllabled Vasantatilakl metre, which has ' "

the pattern — (if such a long ‘unstructured’

string seems daunting at first sight, it may be helpful, purely as an
aid to learning, to think of it as made up of--------------):

preySn manoratha-sahasra-vrtah sa esa,
supta;pramatta;janam etad amStya-vesma |
praudham tamah — kuru krtajnatay» aiva bhadram,
utksipta ;muka;mani-nQpuram ehi ySmah ||

(A girl is persuaded to elope:) Here is that lover wooed in a
thousand dreams. Here is the minister’s house where the
people are asleep or inattentive. The darkness is thick. Simply
from gratitude [do good:] treat your lover well. With jewelled
anklets raised and muffled, come, let us be off.

Similarly, the nineteen-syllabled Sardulavikrldita,

— / (or --- ---2- -- ---- /-- -- - --):

manda:kvanita;venur ahni sithile vySvartayan go-kulam

barh>-apidakam uttamSnga-racitam go-dhQli-dhOmram
dadhat j

mlSyantyS vana-malaya parigatah srSnto>pi ramy>-akrtir
gopa-stri-nayan>-otsavo vitaratu sreySmsi vah Kesavah ||

{A benediction :) Sounding his flute gently, driving the cattle
back [the day being slack:] as the day declines, wearing
[placed] on his head a crest of peacock feathers grey with
the dust from the cows, encircled with a fading garland of
wild flowers, though tired attractive to look at, a feast for
the eyes of the cowherd girls, may Krsna bestow blessings
upon you

Many metres, particularly the longer ones, contain one or more
fixed caesuras within the pada. Thus in the Sardulavikrl-
dita there is always a break after the twelfth syllable, so that the
final seven syllables form a separate rhythmical unit. The final
syllable of the pada in any of these metres is supposed to be
heavy. A light syllable may, however, be substituted at the end of
the half-verse or verse, since it is compensated for by the fol-
lowing pause. A light syllable at the end of the first or third
pada is not normal, but it is permissible in some metres, notably
the Vasantatilaka.

chapter 15

The way to master any of these metres is simply to fix its rhythm
in one’s head. This may be achieved pleasantly enough by com-
mitting stanzas of Sanskrit poetry to memory. But for those who
do not find it too arid, another possibility with practical advan-
tages, which, of course, does not preclude the other method, is
to memorise a Sanskrit definition of each metre. Such definitions
can embody in a single pada of the appropriate metre a state-
ment of its metrical pattern, including any caesuras, and its
name. The last is especially useful since it is all too easy to
recognise a particular metre without remembering what it is
called. (The name of a metre always fits somewhere into its met-
rical pattern, and may perhaps sometimes have been a phrase
taken from an early example of the type.)

Sanskrit prosodists refer to a heavy syllable as guru ‘heavy’, or
simply g or ga; and to a light syllable as laghu ‘light’, or simply
1 or la. They proceed to an economical analysis by similarly as-
signing a letter to each possible group of three syllables:

y - — bh — - m g —

r - — j n — 1 “

t — - s

(The value of these letters can be learnt by memorising them in
the following pattern:

where each letter initiates its own pattern— yamata, mataia,
taraja, rajabha, etc.)

Thus the definition of the Vasantatilaka, as given by Kedara in
his Vrttaratndkara, is:

ukta Vasantatilaka ta;bha;ja ja;gau gah the Vasantatilaka is

described as t, bh and j, (then) j and g, (then) g — i.e. ,

— w 5 w *“ w 5 w — 5 —

The group of three syllables is, of course, in no sense a rhythmi-
cal unit, and the pada is analysed continuously with out refer-
ence to any caesura (yati). Caesuras are mentioned separately by
a numerical grouping— e.g. the Sardulavikrldita is said to con-
sist of twelve syllables plus seven. Symbolic numbers rather than
the ordinary numerals are mostly used for this purpose (these
symbolic numbers are found in other contexts in Sanskrit, for in-
stance in verses giving dates). For the ordinary numeral there is
substituted some noun frequently associated with that particular

number (as if we were to say ‘sin’ for ‘seven’ in English because
there are seven deadly sins). Thus yuga ‘age of the world’ means
‘four’ ; surya ‘sun’ means ‘twelve’ (with reference to the signs of
the zodiac); asva ‘horse’ means ‘seven’ (because there were seven
horses of the sun). Ked&ra’s definition of the $5rdulavikridita is:

sflry> jasvair yadi mat sa^au sa;ta ;ta;gah, Sardfllavikriditam if,
with twelve (syllables) plus seven, (there is) after m both s
and j, (and then) s, t, t and g, (we have) the Sardulavikridita

(The ablative to express ‘after’ is a grammarian’s usage men-
tioned below.)

Semi-even [ardhasamacatuspadT) metres

There exists a number of metres which are not absolutely iden-
tical in each pada, although each half-verse corresponds exactly.
The commonest of these comprise a small family group in which
the second or fourth pada differs from the first or third simply
by the insertion of an extra heavy syllable. Of these metres the
Puspitagra is the most frequently occurring.

Th eArya metre

This metre, which was adopted into Sanskrit from more popu-
lar sources, differs fundamentally in structure from all the pre-
ceding. It is divided into feet (here the English term is appropri-
ate and difficult to avoid), each of four matins in length. A
matra ‘mora’ is a unit of prosodie length equivalent to a light
syllable. Each foot (except the sixth) may therefore consist of
— ~, — , or — ; and the second, fourth and sixth may fur-
ther take the form .A stanza is normally made up of two

lines of seven and a half feet each, with the sixth foot of the sec-
ond line consisting of a single light syllable. In its Classical
Sanskrit use, the metre usually contains a caesura after the third
foot in each line.

In this metre the rhythmical ictus often falls upon a light sylla-
ble, and it can be difficult when reading some Arya stanzas to
keep a proper grip on the rhythm and at the same time avoid an
unnatural manner of recitation. The following example, how-
ever; flows smoothly.

gacchati purah sariram, dh&vati pasc&d a:samsthitam cetah |

cln&msukam iva ketoh prati_vatam nlyarnSnasya ||

(as I think of the girl I have just parted from) my body moves
forward, but my unsteady mind runs back, like the silk of a ban-
ner being carried into the wind

The Kumara-sarnbhava of Kalidasa

K&lid£sa, in almost every estimation the greatest of Sanskrit poets,
wrote both plays and poems. Among the latter are two examples
of the mah&k£vya or major narrative poem, Raghu-vamsa ’The
race of Raghu’ and Kumara-sarnbhava The birth of Kumara’.
Kumara (lit. ‘the Prince’) is another name of Skanda or Karttikeya,
god of war and son of the mighty god Siva. Cantos I to VIE of the
poem (all that are regarded as genuinely the work of Kalidasa) de-
scribe the events leading up to his birth, but stop short of the birth
itself. The gods need a powerful general to defeat the demon
Taraka, and such a general will be bom only from the union of
Siva with Parvatl, the daughter of the mountain-god Himalaya.
However Siva is a practising ascetic and has no thought of mar-
riage. Kama, the god of love, attempts to inflame Siva’s feelings
and is reduced to ashes for his pains; but Parvatl finally wins Siva’s
love by becoming an ascetic herself and practising the severest aus-
terities. Canto VI describes how Siva sends the Seven Sages (ac-
companied by Arundhatl, wife of one of them) to ask Himalaya
for his daughter’s hand in marriage. The extract given in Exercise
15 begins just after the Sage AAgiras has conveyed this request.

Each canto of a mahakavya is normally written in a single metre,
with the exception of one or more closing verses. The metre used
is either the anustubh or one of the shorter of the other metres,
Indravajra, Vamsastha, ViyoginI, etc. (but never theArya). The
longer metres such as the Sardulavikrldita do not lend
themselves to use in continuous narrative; and even with the
shorter metres actually employed, the stanzaic structure, with
each stanza a polished and self-contained unit, is one of the
more striking features of such poetry. The concluding stanza or
stanzas of each canto are written in a different and normally
somewhat more elaborate metre: this is illustrated by the pres-
ent extract, which extends to the end of the canto and closes
with a Puspitagra stanza.

The extract has been chosen because it is a simple passage
which illustrates both the anustubh metre and the perfect tense,
but in its slight way it does also suggest some of the qualities of
Kalidasa’s genius: his luminous and unerringly exact use of lan-
guage, the mark of the great poet everywhere, and his ability to
view human life and activity (here, the giving of a daughter in

marriage) under a transfiguring sense of divine order— an
ability sometimes superficially seen as a tendency to treat the
gods in secular and sensual terms.

Here, as a preliminary guide to the general sense of the passage,
is a comparatively free translation of it:

84 When the divine sage had spoken,

PSrvati, at her father’s side,

Keeping her face bent down began to count
The petals of the lotus she was playing with.

85 The Mountain, though he had all he could wish for,
Looked enquiringly at Mena.

For where his daughter is concerned
A man’s eyes are his wife.

8 6 And Mena gave her assent

To all that her husband longed for.

The wishes of a devoted wife

Are never at odds with those of her husband.

87 Determining inwardly
The way he should reply,

When the speech was over

He took hold of his daughter adorned for the happy
occasion.

88 ‘Come, dearest child.

You are destined as alms for the Most High.

The Sages themselves are here to sue for you.

My life as a householder has found its fulfilment.’

89 Having said this much to his child
The Mountain spoke to the Sages:

‘The bride of the Three-eyed God
Herewith salutes you all.’

90 Joyfully the sages acknowledged
The noble generosity of these words.

And bestowed upon Amba

Blessings that would immediately be fulfilled.

91 She, in her anxiety to do them homage,

Displaced the golden ornaments at her ears.

And as she showed her confusion
Arundhatl took her upon her lap,

92 And the mother whose face was full of tears,
Made anxious by love for her daughter

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218

She reassured about the merits of that bridegroom.
Who had bo other to make prior claims on him.

93 When Siva's father-in-law

Had consulted them upon the wedding-date,

And they had answered it should be three days hence,
The sages departed.

94 After talcing their leave of Himalaya
They returned to the Trident-holder
Announced the success of their mission.

And, dismissed by him, flew up to heaven.

95 And the Lord of Creatures passed those days with

difficulty,

Longing for union with the Mountain’s daughter
When even our Lord is not immune from such feelings.
What ordinary, helpless man can escape the torments?

In stanza 87 ‘adorned for the happy occasion’ refers to the oc-
casion of the Sages’ visit ; but by a literary resonance it hints also
at the coming occasion of the wedding. In stanza 9a the com-
pound ananyapfirva, as well as meaning (as Mallinatha takes it)
‘not having another more senior wife’, is a pun meaning ‘having
none other than Iftrvatl herself as a previous wife’— a reference
to the fact that Siva’s earlier wife Sat! was a previous incarnation
of Parvatl. (I am indebted to Dr Wendy O’Flaherty for both
these observations.)

Mallindtha’s commentary

The extract from the Kum&ra-sambhava is accompanied by a
commentary upon it by the medieval scholar Mallinitha, the au-
thor of standard commentaries on Kalidasa’s two other main
non-dramatic works, as well as on the mahakavyas of other
Sanskrit poets. His work is an excellent example of the more lit-
eral type of Sanskrit commentary, which expounds the original
text by means of a continuous close verbal paraphrase. It is an
interesting reflection of the structure of the Classical language
and the difficulties of Classical literary style that such a word-
for-word paraphrase should be worth making. The style of such
commentaries should be mastered, since when they are by good
scholars they are an extremely important aid in the interpreta-
tion of Classical texts. It should also be noted that many major
works by writers on philosophical and other subjects are, for-
mally speaking, commentaries upon earlier texts (or even upon
some more succinctly expressed version of the writer’s own

views) and exhibit certain peculiarities of style deriving from this
fact. The following remarks, although concerned primarily with
the present extract from Mallinatha, should be of some help in
the interpretation of commentaries in general.

The basis of the commentatorial style is oral exposition, and the
simplest starting-point in understanding MallinStha is to imagine
him as a teacher sitting with a manuscript of the original text in
front of him. He reads out or recites from memory— inevitably
the latter had he been expounding Panini or the Vedas— the por-
tion of the original, normally one stanza, which he is about to ex-
plain. (This is indicated in the written text of the commentary by
the first word of the original followed by iti: thus in Exercise 15
evam iti means ‘the portion beginning with the word evam’, i.e.
stanza 84.) He then goes back and takes the words one at a time
or in small phrases, selecting them in the order most convenient
for exposition and resolving sandhi as necessary.

As he takes up each word or phrase, he follows it with a literal
equivalent, unless he considers it too obvious for helpful para-
phrase. This habit of making paraphrase (or ‘gloss’) the rule
rather than the exception is a useful one. It may seem pointless
at times: on stanza 92 it is hardly likely to help anyone to be told
that duhitr-snehena means putrikapremna. But this is a small
price to pay for the advantage of having a check on the inter-
pretation of passages which are not so obvious as they seem at
first sight.

The commentary is often unobtrusively helpful in analysing
compounds by resolving them into separate words. When this is
done the compound is frequently not quoted in its original form
in the commentary. Thus in 88 grhamedhi-phalam ‘reward of a
householder’ occurs only as grhamedhinah phalam (with
grhamedhinah glossed as grhasthasya). When the original form
of the compound is quoted, it tends to appear after the analysis:
e.g. 92 tasySh . . . mStaram tan-mataram. This forms an excep-
tion to the general principle that the paraphrase is placed after
the original. (In the transliterated version of Exercise 15 any di-
rect gloss is placed in parentheses, and a colon is placed between
the gloss and the original— i.e. normally immediately before the
gloss, sometimes immediately after.) The practice serves to
‘re-establish’ an original form after analysis and is commoner
with less straightforward compounds such as bahuvrihis: e.g. 92
(asrtini mukhe yasySs tim:) asrumukhlm. Even in such cases the
original compound may be replaced by a phrase like tath» oktah
‘(being one) so described’: thus in 85 grhinimetrah ‘having a

wife as one’s eye’ appears as grhiny eva netram . . . yes&m te
tath» oktah ‘of whom the eye is in fact the wife— those such’
(the particle eva serving, as frequently, to distinguish the predi-
cate).

The formula yatha tatha is used to indicate adverbial value.
Thus if slghram has the meaning ‘swiftly’, this may be made
clear by the gloss sighram yatha tatha ‘in such a way as to be
swift’.

While bahuvrihi compounds are regularly analysed by means of
relative clauses, the analysis of other formations is generally by
means of an iti clause, with the relative pronoun replaced by
ayam (or, in the nominative case, omitted): e.g. balam asy> ast>
iti ball ‘the word balin means [“this has strength”:] “that which
has strength”’; pacyata iti p&kah ‘the word pika means [“it is
cooked”:] “that which is cooked” ’.

As in the above examples (ball, pakah), a formation to be
analysed is normally mentioned in the nominative case. The for-
mation is thereafter ‘picked up’, and if necessary returned to the
appropriate oblique case, by means of the pronoun sah. The dis-
cussion of an:anya!pOrvasya in stanza 92 illustrates the use of
sah and also of the relative clause and the iti clause:

1 any 3 pfirvam yasy> asti so >nya;pQrvah ‘anyaipurva means
“one who has another (woman) as a prior (claim)”’.

z sa na bhavat> ity an:anya|pQrvah ‘an:anya:pfkrva means
“one who is not anyayjQrva”’.

3 tasya an:anya;pQrva$ya ‘this latter formation when placed in
the genitive singular provides (the word contained in the text,
namely) an:anya;pQrvasya\

The present participle of as, sant, is often inserted in the course
of exegesis and serves to distinguish attributive words from the
substantive they qualify: so in stanza 84 adhomukhi satf ‘(Parvati
counted the petals) being downward-gazing (as she did so)’. The
phrase tatha hi ‘for thus’ indicates that the following portion of
the text is an explanation or amplification of the preceding.

The syntactical structure of the original text provides a frame-
work for the commentary, but syntactical continuity is fre-
quently interrupted by the insertion of explanatory remarks
(such asides being natural in a spoken exposition.) One type of
insertion, that occasioned by detailed grammatical analysis, has
already been touched upon. In the same way the word-for-word
gloss may be interrupted by a freer paraphrase of the preceding

words, followed by ity arthah ‘such is the meaning’, ‘in other
words . . or iti bhlvah ‘such* is the essence or implication’, ‘i.e.
. . ., that is . . iti y&vat ‘which is as much as to say’, ‘in fact’
is especially used where something is glossed in terms of a sim-
pler or more precise concept which might not have occurred to
the reader. Where something is to be supplied in the original, this
is indicated by iti sesah ‘such is the remainder’, ‘understand . .

Quotations and opinions from other authors are indicated by id
plus the name of the writer or the work. The use made of
Panini’s rules in explaining grammatical forms is discussed
below. Lexicons are also appealed to. The oldest and most reli-
able of these is the Amarakosa by Amara or Amarasimha (writ-
ten in verse, for ease of memorisation). Lexicons make continual
use of the locative case in a technical meaning of ‘in the sense
of’. Thus udaro datr;mahatoh, quoted under stanza 90, means
‘(the word) udSra (occurs) in (the sense of) datror mahant’.

The use of punctuation and sandhi in commentary style is natu-
rally different from their use in a normal text. The danda may
be used at any ‘pause for breath’ and separates the asides from
the mainstream of the commentary. The following policy on san-
dhi has been adopted in editing the present extract: no sandhi
has been made between the words of the text quoted
directly in the commentary and the surrounding words of
Mallinatha himself, and similarly none before iti where this
marks a quotation by Mallinatha from any other author.

221

Ol

Paninian grammar

When Mallinatha considers a form worthy of grammatical
analysis, he explains it by quoting the relevant rules of Panini’s
grammar. For the non-specialist, in fart, the operation of the
Paninian system can be studied more enjoyably in a literary
commentator such as Mallinatha, where its application to the
normal forms of the language can be observed, than in the com-
mentaries upon Panini himself, which are frequently concerned
with recherche forms and complex theoretical considerations. A
brief explanation of the references to Panini in Exercise 15 may
help to give a first faint inkling of how his grammar works.

Panini’s sutras, or aphoristic rules, are formed with the greatest
possible succinctness. They are arranged in such a way that they
frequently depend for their understanding upon the statements
made in the sutras immediately preceding, and have
indeed in principle to be interpreted in the light of all the other

chapter 15

chapter 15

222

CJ1

sutras in the grammar The suffixes which combine with wot®
bases to form actual words are abstractions just as the verbal
roots are. Thus the causative-denominative suffix is treated as]
having the basic form i, which by the operation of various sutra$
changes to ay and combines with the inflexional ending^
Systematic use is made of anubandhas, ‘indicatory letters’ at*
tached to these suffixes. Thus the past participle suffix is known
as kta, the k indicating that the preceding stem appears in its
weak form. The causative-denominative is similarly known as
ni: the n permits the vrddhi of a root such as kr in kSrayati, while
other sutras ensure other grades of the root where necessary. The
n also serves to distinguish ni from other i suffixes, such as si the
neuter plural ending (kintani, man&msi, etc.) or the Vedic ki as
in papi ‘drinking’. The compound-final suffix tac referred to in
sutra 5.4.91 is one of a host of a suffixes: the t indicates that the
feminine is in I, and the c that the accent is on the final. These
artificial words are inflected like ordinary stems of the language,
so that ni is a substantive in short i (gen. neh, loc. nau) and tac
is a consonant stem. But tac illustrates the fact that certain
sounds may occur in final position in made-up words that are
not so found in the natural words of the language.

The cases are used in technical senses: the ablative to signify
‘after’, the locative ‘before’, the genitive ‘for, in place of’, while
the substitute which is put ‘in place’ is expressed in the nomina-
tive. It is as if one were to say ‘after child for s (there is) reri to
express the irregular plural of child; or ‘for soft (there is) sof be-
fore en' to indicate that the t of soften is not pronounced. To de-
scribe the sandhi of the mentioned in Chapter z, we may (if we
select di as the basic form) say ‘for 5 i (there is) a before conso-
nants’. It is not necessary to say in full ‘(there is) da', since (with
certain qualifications) it is a principle of interpreting Paninian
rules that a single-letter substitute is to be treated as replacing
only the final letter of the original.

The first sQtra which MallinStha quotes, Pinini 7.3.43, illus-
trates this last point. It concerns the fact that the causative of
rub ‘ascend’ may take the form ropayati as well as the regular
rohayati. It tuns ruhah po >nyatarasy&m. From an earlier sutra
(7-3 -3 6) the word nau ‘before ni’ is to be supplied, ruhah is the
genitive of ruh. anyatarasySm means ‘optionally’. The sutra
therefore means ‘before the causative suffix, for (the final h of)
ruh, p is substituted optionally’.

The discussion of the word tryiahah ‘period of three days’ in
stanza 93 is more complex. It may be observed in passing that

‘such compounds, which correspond to the English ‘a fortnight’,
fa twelvemonth’, are best looked on as having exocentric
[value— ‘that (period) in which there are fourteen nights/twelve
months’. But Sanskrit grammarians include them in a special
class called dvigu ‘numerical compound’, which is treated as a
sub-variety of tatpurusa.

Mallinatha begins by quoting 2.1.5 1 taddhit>;arth> ;ottara-
pada;sam2hdre ca. sam<kn>;adhikaranena must be supplied from

2.1.49, which states that certain words may combine ‘with (an-
other word) having the same case relationship’ to form a com-
pound. This is a way of saying that they may be prefixed with
adjectival or appositional value to another word so as to form a
descriptive determinative. dik;samkhye must be supplied from

2.1.50, which deals with the fact that ‘(words denoting) either
region or number’ combine in the same type of compound to ex-
press various proper names. The present sutra thus says that
words expressing region or number may compound with a word
having the same case relationship ‘in die following further cir-
cumstances (ca): to express the sense of a taddhita (secondary
suffix), or when there is a further member (added to the com-
pound), or to express collective sense’. The first two possibilities
will not be discussed since they are not relevant here. In tryahah
we have the numeral tri ‘three’ combining with ahan ‘day’ to ex-
press the sense ‘collection consisting of three days’. The locative
samphire does not here have its sense of ‘before’ but its other
technical sense of ‘in the sense of’ as used in lexicons.

The following sutra, 2.1.52, not quoted by Mallinatha, says
samkhyaipQrvo dviguh, i.e. ‘the name dvigu is given to a com-
pound (of one of these three kinds) when the first member is a
numeral’. (This explains why Panini did not make 2.1.50 and
2.1. 51 a single sutra: the name dvigu does not apply to a com-
pound like saptatrsayah (nom. pi.) ‘the Seven Sages’, the
Sanskrit name for the Great Bear.)

Although the word ahan ‘day’ is a consonant stem, tryahah is an
a-stem. Mallinatha quotes 5.4.91 raj > ;ahah ;sakhibhyas tac. This
is governed by 5.4.68 sam§s>-anUkh ‘the following * suffixes
(down to the end of Book 5, in fact) are compound-final’. The
sutra thus means ‘after the words rajqn, ahan and sakhi there
occurs as a compound-final suffix tac’.

Mallinatha does not bother to quote 6.4.145 ahnas ta;khor eva,
which shows how to apply this last rule. The words lopah ‘eli-
sion’, i.e. ‘zero-substitution’, and teh ‘in place of ti’ are to be
supplied, ti is a technical term meaning ‘the final vowel of a

word plus the following consonant if any’. The sutra therefore
means ‘zero is substituted for the final vowel and consonant or
ahan, but only before a suffix with indicatory t or kha’. Thus|
ahan + tac becomes ah + tac, i.e. aha.

MallinStha refers to, without actually quoting, 2.4.1 dvigufl
ekavacanam ‘dvigu compounds are singular’; and finally
justifies the masculine gender of tryahah (though K&lid&s$>
only uses the ambiguous ablative form tryahSt) by 1.4. m
ratr>;ahn>;ahah pumsi. From 1.4.16 dvandva jtatpurusayoh is
supplied: ‘the words ratra, ahna and aha (used at the end of a*cor>
ordinative or determinative compound) occur in the masculine’.

To summarise the above:

tri + ahan means ‘group of three days’ by 1.1.51
the compound takes the suffix tac by 5.4.91
ahan + tac becomes aha by 6.4.145
the compound is a dvigu by 1.1.52
and therefore singular by 2.4.1
and masculine by 1.4.29.

Sutra 5.1.80 utka untnanah is interesting as an example of
nipatah, a formation listed ready-made by Pinini without justi-
fication in terms of its components, utka ‘eager’ is listed among
formations made with the suffix kan, but is anomalous both be-
cause kan is added not to a nominal stem but to the prefix ut
and because its meaning, which refers to a mental state, it is not
fully explicable from its elements. PSnini thus lists it as a special
form and gives its meaning. The word nipatah is better known
in the sense of ‘particle’, a meaning it acquires because particles
exist ready-made without undergoing grammatical formation.

Lastly, in his comment on stanza 87 Mallinatha shows his
knowledge of Panini’s analysis of the word nyiyya ‘proper’.
Sutra 4.4.92. dharmapathyarthanySyad anapete, teaches that
the taddhita suffix yat, whose real form is ya, is added to the
forms dharma, pathin (the stem form of pan than as analysed by
the Sanskrit grammarians), artha and ny§ya in order to form
words which mean ‘not departed from dharma’, etc. Although
Mallinatha does not quote Pan ini exactly, his gloss of the word
nyfyyam as nyayad anapetam echoes the relevant sutra.

Quotations from literary critics

Besides citing grammarians and lexicographers, Mallinatha
quotes from many other sources, including popular sayings and

' works on right conduct (dharma-sastra) or political science
(nlti-sastra), and in particular from many literary critics. He
Seldom gives the name of the work he is quoting from, and
sometimes when he does so the attribution is wrong. It may be
assumed that his quotations are normally made from memory.

Sanskrit literary criticism as it is known from about the ninth
century onward is the development of an earlier alamkara-sSstra
‘Science of Embellishment’ in combination with certain elements
of natya-sistra ‘Theatrical Science’. The term alamkara ‘orna-
[ment, embellishment’ is wider than the English ‘figure of speech’
and somewhat different in scope. It includes almost all tfre us-
ages by means of which a poet’s language departs from the most
colourless possible presentation of facts and ideas, and covers
devices of sound such as assonance and rhyme as well as devices
of sense such as simile and metaphor. In addition to the
alamkaras proper, various possible ‘Qualities’ (gunas) are enu-
merated. Mallinatha observes that stanza 94 illustrates the
Quality known as Conciseness (samksepa) and quotes a rather
tautologous definition of this Quality from a work called the
Prataparudrlya. An examination of the stanza will indeed show
that Kalidasa’s telescoping of the narrative at this point is suffi-
ciently marked and deliberate to be considered a literary device.

Although Mallinatha does not bother to point the fact out, the
second half of stanza 85 (like the second half of 86, which is par-
allel) illustrates a common rhetorical figure known as
arthlntaranyasa ‘Substantiation’ or ‘Corroboration’. In its most
typical form, as here, it consists of a general reflection provoked
by the particular facts of the situation that is being described, and
is frequently signalled by the presence of a word such as
prtyena ‘generally’. The figure thus has the flavour of ‘moral-
drawing’, There is a similar flavour to the second half of stanza
95, but here, as Mallinatha points out, the precise figure involved
is arthapatti ‘Strong Presumption’, i.e. reasoning a fortiori.

From natya-sastra literary critics adopted the theory of rasa (lit.
‘flavour, taste’), which in its most developed form is a subtle
theory of the nature of aesthetic experience. Its basis is the divi-
sion of the spectator’s experience of a play into a number of
‘flavours’ (at first eight, later usually nine)— comic, horrific, etc.
To each of these rasas corresponds a basic human emotion
(sthayi:bh£va ‘Stable or Dominant State’), which will normally
be represented in one or more of the characters of the drama.
Around the basic emotion various minor emotions come fleet-
ingly into play— the thirty-three Transitory or Subordinate

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226

States, called either vyabhicaritbhSva or sarmcari:bhava. Thus in
the Amorous or Romantic rasa (smgara) the hero and heroine
feel the sthiyibhava of Love (rad) and the vyabhicSribhavas
of Impatience, Disappointment, Contentedness and so on.
Mallinatha points out that stanza 84 illustrates the vyabhi-
c 3 ribhava of Dissimulaition (avahittha or avahitthS). In fact, this
stanza is the one most quoted in textbooks as an example of this
particular State.

cm

Vocabulary

ankah hook; curve of the body,
lap

Angiras m., pr. n.
angi'kr make a part,
subordinate; adopt, accept,
promise

adri tn. rock, mountain
adhoimukha (f. I) down-faced,
with face bent down
antaram interval, difference;
-antaram ifc. a different,
another

anyatarasyam (gram.) optionally
apara prort. adj. other
apfipah cake: see dandaphpika
apeta departed; free from ( abl .)
abhlpsita desired; abipsitam
thing desired, desire
Amarah, Amarasimhah pr. n.,
author of the lexicon
Amara-kosah

Amba, AmbikS pr. n., the wife
of Siva

arth>-antara-nyisah (lit. crit.)
Substantiation

arth>-ipatti f. (lit. crit.) Strong
Presumption

alamkSrah ornament; (lit. crit.)

embellishment, literary figure
aivasa powerless, helpless
avahittham, avahittha disisimu-
lation

asru n. tear; asru^mukha
‘tear-faced’, tearful-faced

ahan n. irreg. day
-ahah, -ahnah (ifc. for ahan)
day

akSrah form, appearance,
(facial) expression
akSsam ether, sky
apatanam occurrence, (sudden)
appearance, arising
apatti f. happening, occurrence
asis f. irreg. prayet; benediction
asirvadah blessing, benison
Ssakti f. adherence, intentness
(on)

itara pron. adj. other
is tarn thing wished, wish
Ipsita desired, wished for
utka eager, longing for
uttara following, subsequent,
further; uttaram answer
udara noble, generous
unimanas eager, longing
eka-vacanam (gram.) singular
(number)
kanakam gold
k am ala m.ln. lotus
karanam doing, performing
kavi m. poet, creative writer
karanam instrument, means
kutumbam household, family
kutumbin m. householder,
family man

kundalam earring, ear-ornament
krcchram hardship; krcchrat
with difficulty

kaimutika deriving from the
notion 1dm uta ‘let alone’;
kaimutika:nyay&t (from the
principle of ‘let alone’:] a
fortiori

kham hole; vacuum; sky,
heaven

gah the letter g; (in prosody)
heavy syllable
ganan& counting
garhasthyam being a
householder
giri m. mountain
grhamedhin (performer of
domestic sacrifices:]
householder

grha-sthah one who is in a
house, householder
grhini housewife, wife
gopanam concealment, hiding
caturtha (f. I) fourth
dram strip of bark (worn by
ascetic)

jah the letter j; (in prosody) the

syllables

jJmbunada (f. I) golden
jijnlsa desire to know, wish to
determine

jfianam knowledge, perceiving
tac (gram.) the suffix a
tat;ksanam at that moment,
thereupon

taddhitah [i.e. tat-hitah ‘suitable
for that*] (gram.) secondary
suffix

tanayik daughter

tikraka causing to cross ovei;

rescuing, liberating
tithi mJf. lunar day (esp. as
auspicious date for ceremony)
tri three

tri;locanah the Three-eyed
(god), Siva

Tryambakah name of Siva
tryiahah (period of] three days

dandapfipika the stick-and-cake
principle (‘if a mouse eats a
stick he’ll certainly eat a
cake’), reasoning a fortiori
dalam petal
datr giver, granting
d&nam gift, bestowal
dvigu m. (from dviigu ‘worth
two cows’] (gram.) numerical
compound

nah the letter n; (in prosody)
the syllables

namas-karah making obeisance
nipitah (gram.) ready-made
form (laid down without
grammatical analysis)
niscayah determination, resolve
nyfyah rule, principle; propriety
pah, pa-k^rah the letter p
pattram feather; leaf, petal
padam word, member of a
compound

para;tantra under another’s
control, not in control (of)
parinayah marriage
iparyanta [having as an end:]
ending with, up to
Pasupati m. name of Siva
p&kah cooking; ripeness, full-
filment

Rfrvatl pr. n. wife of Siva
parsvam flank, side
pitr m. father
pumilinga having masculine
gender

pumvant (gram.) masculine
pums m. (irreg.) man, male,
masculine

putri, putrika daughter
puraskrta placed in front,
before the eyes

puspitigrS (in prosody) name
of a metre

prthag:janah separate person,
ordinary person

chapter 15

pr anSmah salutation
pratyayah {grant.) suffix
ipradhana having as one’s
authority

preman mJn. affection
bandhu m. kinsman
buddhi f. intelligence, mind
bhartr m. husband
bhavah state of being; essence,
meaning; emotional state,
emotion
bhiksa aims
bhita afraid
mahtdharah mountain
mrtyum-jayah Conqueror of
Death

Mena pr. n. PUrvati’s mother
ya-karah the letter y; {in

prosody) the syllables

yadtr m. suer, petitioner
yukti f. argument
yugam pair; ifc. two
yuj joined, even (in number);

a:yuj uneven, odd
yogya suitable

rah the letter r; (in prosody) the
syllables

ratrah at the end of compound
for dktri f. night
ruh the root ruh
rephah = rah

laksanam mark, characteristic;
definition

liAgam mark, sign; phallus;

(gram.) gender
lib play, sport
vacas n. word, words, speech
vataxnsah/vatamsakah ornament,
esp. earring

vadhfi f. woman, bride
varah suitor

valkala mJn. bark (of tree)
vasah power; -vasat from the
power of, because of
vasanam dress

vakyam utterance
vikarah transformation; mental
disturbance; ifc. made out of
vipratipanna perplexed,
uncertain; a:vipratipanna not
uncertain, entirely fixed
vibhu powerful, esp. as an
epithet of Siva
vilambah delay
vivahah wedding
viisoka free from sorrow, at ease
visv>-atman m. Soul of the
Universe, Supreme Godhead
visayah dominion, sphere, field ,
of action

vistarah expansion, prolixity
vjttam metre
vrtti f. behaviour; conduct;
(gram.) synthetic expression
(by compounding, as opp.
analytic expression by separate
words)

vaivahika (f. I) (suitable) for a
wedding

vodhr bridegroom
vyabhidkrah deviation, swerving
vyabhicarin liable to deviate,
swerving; a:vyabhidkrin
unswerving

vyajah fraud, pretence
Sivah pr. n.

s&lin Trident-bearer; epithet of
Siva

sesah remainder; portion to be
supplied

sailah mountain
slokah stanza

samketah agreement, assigna-
tion; samketa-sthinam place of
assignation

samksipta abbreviated, in
concise form
samksepah conciseness
samcarin going together;
transitory; samcati bhavah

(lit. crit.) Subsidiary Emotional
State

|iamarthanam establishment,
confirmation

samasah (gram.) compound
samaharah group, collection
sampfirna fulfilled
sarva-naman n. (gram.) [name
for anything:] pronoun
sJpatnyam the state of being
the sharer of a husband
(sapatni)

siddha accomplished
s&tram aphorism, aphoristic
rule

stambah clump of grass
-stha standing, being at/in
etc.

Smara-harah the Destroyer
of Love, epithet of Siva
Harah name of $ iva
Himavant m., Himdlayah
the mountain (range)
Himalaya

anu + yuj (VII anuyunkte) question, examine
alam + kr (Vm alamkarod) adorn, embellish
ah (defective verb, perf. aha) say, speak

3 + pat (I Spatati) occur, befall, appear suddenly, present oneself
3 prach (VI aprcchad) take leave of, say goodbye
a + mantr (X amantrayate) salute; take leave of
a + ruh cans. (Sropayati) cause to mount, raise onto
ut + Iks (I udiksate) look at
ut + ya (II udySti) rise up
upa + Iks (I upeksate) overlook, disregard
edh cans, (edhayati) cause to prosper bless
gan (X ganayad) count
gup ( denom . pres, gopayati) guard ; hide
car (I carati) move, go, depart
cal (I calati) stir, move, go away
jfia caus. (jfiapayati) inform, announce
nam (I namati) bow, salute
nis + ci (V nisdnod) ascertain, setde, fix upon
nis + pad (IV nispadyate) come forth, be brought about; p.p.
nispanna completed

pac (I pacati) cook, ripen ; pass, pacyate be cooked, ripen

pari + kirt (X parikirtayati) proclaim, declare

pari + ldp caus. (parikalpayad) fix, destine for (dat.)

pra + 3p (V prapnoti) reach, go to; obtain, win

bhf (ID bibhed) fear; p.p. bhita afraid

yi (II yati) go

y3 caus. (y3payati) spend (time)
lajj (VI lajjate) be shy, blush, show confusion
vi + kr (Vffl vikarod) alter, change, distort, cause mental distur-
bance (vikarah) to

vid (VI vindad) find ; pass, vidyate is found, exists
vi + pra + kr (VUI viprakarod) injure, torment

229

CJ1

chapter IS

chapter 15

230

cn

vi + mis (VI vimrsati) perceive, reflea, deliberate

sam + vrdh cans, (samvardhayati) congratulate

sam + stu (II samstauti) praise

sam + khya (II samkhyati) count, reckon up

sah (I s abate; irreg. inf. sodhum) withstand, endure, bear

sfic (X sficayad) point out, indicate

srams (I sramsate ; p. p. srasta) drop, slip

upari after (abl.)

urdbvam after (abl.)

ehi ( imperv . ofi + i) come

paratra elsewhere, in the next world

purah in front, immediate

yasmat inasmuch as, since

Exercise 15 Note: The transliterated version of this exercise
should be of particular help in solving difficulties.

1^331 Rift arif 1

tiunmiK OTCra) lid* II

it Wf a tf frs ft? l yia i ftft aft ft$ : awf snilytsfl a# i
yft: i ^tenanro r aaifa <i Pi wwre *iwa1 i a nq i ay ii wMaH-
t|UHMI'D'l tf«f I sftHIdf&MNSU : aartfl 3K» : I

oial^Mi 5 ii

#t: sft *ftiq<aq3iqi a i

hi«1h : anatsij : mmi

#r ?ft n #r: il^uTdiinI sfa i ait Antra l

foiy s p j & i a i afaatarfti$ra*tft ant: nrar ft i a t fra f%f&R : ^wi:
anatft Tftu^a ^ a >t ^ i n a n ' <s l 3st % traftrc:i

atsraasRsaa : n

^^nftnpnf a?g: <*»i4«4iltmiH . i

*ft iftu iftift a?$: ftmnaia inMM atnf ift as^taair? law
fti aftfcr aw atai at: anftfaft a fa?Rt srfMerrt ansi at:

ats^faarftinit aaftn atfarctifarnaat via: n

•4||U|(t|fr| fc|J{¥4| H: I

231

cn

q4t(&aW-r<aq.RR i 114 s u

HEII-Sfefa II JT^hU: j^RD^ TRXTT^ HjTO^ 3HCT 311? I

fofafifl ^ fjrpftgqgq;: jtlUchtlcfl *: ^raf^^ufif ffifl

fa4aafv«H^ ; iifeuRi<i? 3Mpif<i qvwRi ii

|tfrld l 4fo4kK % s fiHHU fifofa : >

3ll¥flM}i!HII*ll^: ^T:m*lf'Up«»*IM v ll^o II
jfttauufRi ii f^RinSKini ?giv}*TutH sart i a<y(l 314*1?-
tfr: ?WWT: I fift: f?*ra?: «KHH s 4lfiH'4B Ulfiaffl I 3rf?«l«fiP^

arai^l WM ?fif *na»: M»«\l *JT:VIS»lflT: <J44<t><IM>Hlfil: 3IT?ftft?:

3R?flgTt: IjjWfffff : ^wfawi^ : II
at aqi wKi«w^i«^K<n( i 4ii* i H ,i
aqpnfrrcrani anawnfrcarit nss 11
atftrfan h«ihtr)«i ainaarramn aret fauffa<i>i\ a<ra%

iiw i wi arennat «iH3ifa<fciH3K s * ift 3tf»nfhrawra 1 ^?:
at MtfiR : II

<Rinrc ^rggiif $f?44*)?(ci«b4i*{j
TOWWffel f9vhy>W*<^u1: 11^4 II

11 §ft;44*l<H <jGi4>ii)wii tebMi RiaU^ri ?fir iftainj si? ujanjlui
yif awwin, aw: aaftaatrar: aiat *h*nat itat xn
<H<llfw ait 5^4: 1 wt'IU-il ^IrlRm^ <jcl<fll<l: ?fa i^navi ija^tra: 1
* a SFRI^h* I mH<MI$ : ta a $4<l ??a4: 1 TOI

iJ^WwiRtHr: f^taaf^*31^3ravtoljl

4«<iftse*>f fafst <jgi^u^ui I

r nn: fiprai^cHHiw^ ijPraiaFiraan^ snr gfaarait fa^-iruiyiiK
uf anAa ■-yi«m v •aiaiaaAtf*^ 3*ufli(a #pn farU f4«jva fal^wa
5C ^rar ?rara^at ^n*u^ ?wwrt «nn? 11

nj? fawaiA a?*t f^iHj nft*(c*i<ii 1
3lfifatga3: UnSf JJ?^l«l<*H TOT 114 4 II
HifHaii % a?it sftr ttf? anwi aa fagiarA ftranr fasfrr uftaifNatfa
ftftpnftr 1 aanft v ro u i N ar4 fa?? an fig?: ?fa TOR i fc fit »ro: i
a»fifar: aifadH ; 1 JTO: I TOT T gAfi W: pTO TO* UIXS^I ?? aTO XT
4K4>ttll<qiA <h*ai3H *T(i$VRI*a aJ^fTOTsf : II
I(<ll4$ft>l <Hailj4t*ll? *I^t*TT : I

chapter 15

II ^tTt|fTO?T: ^IHWIWcHm :% wR> R: wp^Wfafrl #
gryf=TT f^RcTT &llfaff facfTgq^r firfsf W: %W3fWT : ^Rff:l
s ra r mw a i wci g mw g: i «l&ii«ifflwi<wjrt v ?fir mi
mng .Ww t WL . ffir zmm v. » Ifaw^Mw^ i Tinaw: ifa *Rr

KIWI, 3*lft aSTOTHT S?Pr ftciig: fWJ?M

tTC»: tlfci<il : II

% ftwmniPim ip: nimr ti
fag «n^l nlfcqgi: ugirg: iis*ii
«r ^r ii % ip*r: fo n wwmw mg mr fwm^w $T: »jfsn^?t
iito ^ i fiRhi iiniPfBii i

flf&q g l : frr *jjftRT ft^gT: 3ira»m Trffr 33^: 3^?J: 1 3BT

mr ijor 3W: 1 ays^— ^fijnaratfi W Fl HT#*:

iifiaSHfcr: gfiru

M» l ^^q f ^<PI*Rl»l<«Wfi| ift| 3 V i gil* < l ^q|<W l fe«l lg

apwmfiF^rmpnftwf : i
aa ra w ivi a Rwy&

R^pfil agift^VlPanraT: IHM3II
^MfilRRl II 5W mt "tf: 3?3»:l 3?5> 3*RT: gfil Pwi<i:l
3rijrsffimpwft?a> : arffoiftgrftq p r : a*pfiirftr aifn jftnftfir vta:i
argrft gflqpa»i*ra^ annual *Gw*— affft urar: ajtegwmr:
Traitor: aravn^ |l^ro^ <p^«i * t a fcrasrt

i nn i faaEwfoE i ara^ i imraTST^aifir

VjVlfel i fa$<&flwf :i are f ^rd«t>K^^R<iifr< F r<^wfii*K :
4»^Rl*-J||<IWIMfl<n«l«l?MRu«*K : I <WT * ^51*1. — 4U4l4fM*qi-
qtmremrefrifa : gfiri <twfoi<^Hi ?fir % to^ a^afprfapj
tosirirarato^ i yfruiHii ginr — afrgf^r H^i)M>«i) <i*i<l ijfa w
3TTTOI yfrlVIHlI $3 ^muil^ll

Anyone who has mastered the present volume is adequately
equipped to read simple Classical Sanskrit. Those whose interest
lies particularly in Indian religious thought may well wish to
begin with the best loved of all Hindu religious texts, the
Bhagavad Gltd, written in eighteen short cantos of easy, straight-
forward verse. Innumerable texts and translations of this work
exist. For the student, the most scrupulously faithful translation
is probably that by F. Edgerton (Harper Torchbooks). Other dis-
tinguished scholars who have translated the work include R. C.
Zaehner ( Hindu Scriptures , Everyman; also The Bhagavad Gltd
with commentary and text in transcription, Oxford University
Press) and S. Radhakrishnan (Allen & Unwin, including text in
transcription). The pocket edition with a text in nagari by Annie
Besant (Theosophical Publishing House) is cheap and conven-
ient, though the accompanying translation is unreliable.

In secular literature a good starting-point is the Pahcatantra, a
witty and sophisticated collection of animal fables (the ultimate
source of La Fontaine), written in fluent, racy Sanskrit. Many
versions of this work have survived, and these were collated by
Edgerton, who produced a recension as near as he thought it
was possible to get to the original. His translation of this has
been reprinted (Allen & Unwin), but not unfortunately the
Sanskrit text (American Oriental Series, Volume z, New Haven,
19Z4), which should, however; be obtainable from specialist
libraries.

An especially attractive and accessible branch of Classical
Sanskrit literature is the drama. The prose dialogue is straight-
forward (many sentences are likely to seem familiar to the stu-
dent of this book!). Certain characters speak in Prakrit, but
almost all editions include a Sanskrit translation (chaya) of these
passages. The stanzas of verse interspersed among the prose are

|n appendix 1 : further Sanskrit study

appendix 1

234

more elaborate in style but should not prove too difficult with
the help of a translation and notes such as have been provided
for most standard Sanskrit plays by M. R. Kale: Kale’s student
editions are very useful and workmanlike, and are usually in
print in India— though regrettably these reprints often bristle
with grotesque printing errors. The best known of all Sanskrit
plays is the takuntaUl of K&lk&sa. Other masterpieces include
the MrccbakatikS (Toy Cart’) of Sudraka, the Mudr&rOksasa
’(The Signet Ring and Rhksasa’) of Visakhadatta and the
Uttararamacarita (‘The Later Story of Rama’) of BhavabhQti—
the last, although a moving and beautiful work, being of the four
perhaps the least immediately attractive to Western taste in its
style and feeling.

Sanskrit dictionaries

A. A. Macdonell’s A Sanskrit Dictionary for Students (Oxford
University Press, 38a pp.) is much the most convenient in the
early stages of study. The author lists in the preface the Sanskrit
works for which the dictionary is specifically a vocabulary. In
reading other works or for more scholarly use, M. Monier-
Williams’ A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford University
Press, 1333 pp.), effectively a translation and condensation of
the great Sanskrit-Worterbuch of Bdhtlingk and Roth, is indis-
pensable. Unfortunately, it suffers the irritating drawback of
being arranged not in strict alphabetical order but according to
verbal roots. All present dictionaries are grossly out of date:
Sanskrit studies will be revolutionised when the vast work at
present under preparation in Poona finally sees the light of day.

Sanskrit grammars

A. A. Macdonell’s A Sanskrit Grammar for Students (Oxford
University Press) is again the most convenient work available
and, despite some inaccuracies and omissions, is a model of clar-
ity and conciseness. The standard Sanskrit grammar in English
is still that of W. D. Whitney (and edition 1889, reprinted by
Oxford University Press), but this is now very out of date, the
presentation of Vedic and Classical material is confusingly inter-
twined and the treatment of syntax is sketchy in the extreme.
The really standard work is in German, the monumental
Altindische Grammatik of Wackernagel and Debrunner

(Gottingen, 1896-1957); but special mention should be made of
a French work, the Grammaire sanscrite of Louis Renou (Paris,
xnd edition 1961), which, while of a more manageable size than
Wackemagel, treats Classical Sanskrit in considerable detail and
is full of valuable observations on syntax.

235

Vedic studies

Students primarily interested in comparative Indo-European
philology may like to turn to the Vedic language at an early stage
in their studies, and here yet again the path is smoothed by
A. A. Macdonell. His Vedic Reader for Students (Oxford
University Press) contains a selection of Vedic hymns transliter-
ated, analysed and translated, with very full notes on points of
linguistic interest and a complete vocabulary at the back of the
book. The Vedic hymns, which are not without their attraction
from the literary point of view, are thus made easily accessible to
the non-specialist. Macdonell’s Vedic Grammar for Students is
arranged to correspond paragraph for paragraph with his
Sanskrit Grammar mentioned above, so facilitating the compar-
ison of Vedic grammar with Classical.

appendix 1

lj appendix 2: grammatical paradigms

This appendix is for use in conjunction with the foregoing chap-
ters, where further irregularities and alternative forms may be
mentioned.

Nouns

It will be noticed that in all nouns each of the following groups
has a single form:

(i) Nominative, vocative and accusative (N. V. A.) dual

(ii) Instrumental, dative and ablative (I. D. Ab.) dual

(iii) Genitive and locative (G. L.) dual

(iv) Dative and ablative plural

(v) Nominative and vocative dual or plural

(vi) Nominative and accusative neuter , any number

1 Vowel stems

Stems in a/sU kanta ‘beloved’

masc.

N. sing.

kin tab

A. n

kantam

I. „

kantena

D. „

kantaya

Ab. „

kantat

G.

kantasya

L. „

kante

V. „

kanta

N. V. A. du.

kantau

I. D. Ab. „

kantabhyam

G.L. „

kantayoh

neut. fem .

kantam

kanta

kantam

kantam

kantena

kantaya

kantaya

kantayai

kantat

kantayah

kantasya

kantayah

kante

kantayam

kanta

kante

kante

kante

kantabhyam

kanQbhyam

kantayoh

kantayoh

N.V. pi.

kantah

kantani

kantah

A.

kantan

kantani

kantah

L

kantaih

kantaih

kantabhih

D. Ab. „

kantebhyah

kantebhyah

kantabhyah

G.

kantanam

kantanam

kantanam

L

kantesu

kantesu

kantasu

Stems in

I and G: nadl f. ‘river’, vadhG f.

‘woman’, strl f.

‘woman’,

dhl f. ‘thought’, bhQ f. ‘

earth’

Polysyllabic

Irregular

N. sg.

nadi

vadhOh

stri

A.

nadlm

vadhOm

strim/striyam

L

nadya

vadhva

striya

D.

nadyai

vadhvai

striyai

Ab. G.

nadyah

vadhvah

striyah

L.

nadyam

vadhvam

stri yam

V.

nadi

vadhu

stri

N.V. A. du.

nadyau

vadhvau

striyau

I. D. Ab.

nadibhyam

vadhfibhyam

stribhyam

G.L.

nadyoh

vadhvoh

striyoh

N. V. pi.

nadyah

vadhvah

striyah

A.

nadih

vadhOh

strih/striyah

I.

nadibhih

vadhObhih

stribhih

D. Ab.

nadibhyah

vadhnbhyah

stribhyah

G.

nadlnam

vadhQnam

strinam

L.

nadisu

vadhDsu

strisu

Monosyllabic

N. sg.

dhih

bluih

A.

dhiyam

bhuvam

I.

dhiya

bhuva

D.

dhiye

bhuve

Ab. G.

dhiyah

bhuvah

L.

dhiyi

bhuvi

V.

dhih

bhfih

N.V. A. du.

dhiyau

bhuvau

I. D. Ab.

dhibhyam

bhQbhyam

G.L.

dhiyoh

bhuvoh

N. V. pi.

dhiyah

bhuvah

A.

dhiyah

bhuvah

I.

dhlbhih

bbQbhih

D. Ab.

dhibhyah

bbnbhyah

G.

dhiyam

bbuvam

L.

dhipi

bblsu

Stems in i

and u: sud ‘dean’, mrdu ‘soft’
9 %

ntasc.

neut.

fern.

N. sg.

sucih

sud

sudh

A.

sucim

sud

sucim

I.

su cina

sudnS

sucya

237

appendix 2

D.

sucaye

sudne

sucyai

Ab.G.

suceh

sudnah

sucyQh

L.

sucau

sucioi

sucyQm

V.

luce

sud

luce

N. V. A. du.

luci

sucini

loci

L D. Ab.

sudbhyQm

sudbhyQm

sudbhyam

G.L.

sucyoh

sudnoh

sucyoh

N. V. pi.

sucayah

sucini

sucaya^i

A.

lucln

sucioi

sucih

I.

sudbhib

sudbhib

sudbhih

D. Ab.

sudbhyah

sudbhyah

sudbhyah

G.

suclnQm

suctaQm

sudnam

L.

sucisu

sucisu

sudsu

rrtasc.

neut.

fern.

N. sg.

mrduh

mrdu

mrduh

A.

mrdum

mrdu

mrdum

I.

mrduna

mrduna

mrdva

D.

mrdave

mrdune

mrdvai

Ab.G.

mjdoh

mrdunah

mrdvQh

L.

mrdau

mrduni

mrdvim

V.

mrdo

mrdu

mrdo

N. V. A. du.

mrdQ

mrduni

mrdQ

L D. Ab.

mrdubhyam

mrdubhyam

mrdubhyam

G.L.

mrdvoh

mjduuoh

midvoh

N. V. pi.

mrdavah

mrdOni

mrdavah

A.

mrdQn

mrdOni

mrdQh

I.

midubhih

midubhih

midubhih

D. Ab.

mrdubhyah

mrdubhyah

mrdubhyah

G.

mrdfln3m

mfdllftilm

mfAntm

L.

midusu

midusu

mrdum

Stems in r kartr

m. ‘maker’.

pitr m. ‘father’.

svasr f. ‘sister’,

matr f. ‘mother’

masc.

N. sg.

karti

pita

A.

kart&ram

pitaram

I.

kartrS

pitta

D.

kartre

pitre

Ab.G.

kartuh

pituh

L.

kartari

pitari

V.

kartar

pitar

N. V. A. du.

kartQrau

pitarau

I. D. Ab.

kartrbhySm

pitrbhySm

G.L.

kartroh

pitroh

N. V. pi.

kartSrah

pitarah

A.

kartfn

pitfn

L

kartrbhih

pitrbhih

D. Ab.

kartrbhyah

pitrbhyah

G.

kartfnam

pitfnim

L.

kartrsu

pitrsu

fem.

N. sg.

svasa

nda

A.

svasaram

mataram

I.

svasrS

matra

D.

svasre

matte

Ab. G.

svasuh

matuh

L.

svasari

mStari

V.

svasar

m3 tar

N. V. A. du

svasSrau

matarau

L D. Ab.

svasrbhyim

matrbhyim

G.L.

svasroh

matroh

N. V. pi.

svasirah

matarah

A.

svasfh

ndtfh

1.

svasrbhih

mStrbhih

D. Ab.

svasrbhyah

matrbhyah

G.

svasfnim

ndtffflm

L.

svasrsu

matrsu

Note: The feminine of kartt is kartri.

2 Consonant stems

Unchangeable stems : $uhrd m. ‘friend’, go-duil m./f. ‘cow-
milker’, manas n. ‘mind’, sumanas mVf. ‘benevolent’

N. sg.

suhrt

godhuk

A.

suhrdam

goduham

I.

suhrda

goduha

D.

suhrde

goduhe

Ab. G.

suhrdah

goduhah

L.

suhrdi

goduhi

V.

suhrt

godhuk

N. V. A. du.

suhrdau

goduhau

L D. Ab.

suhrdbhyim

godhugbhyam

G.L.

snhrdoh

goduhoh

N. V. A. pi.

suhrdah

goduhah

I.

suhidbhih

godhugbhih

D. Ab.

suhrdbhyah

godhugbhyah

G.

suhrdam

goduham

L.

suhrtsu

godhuksu

appendix 2

N. sg.

manah

sumanih

A.

manah

sumanasam

L

sumanasi

D.

manase

sumanase

Ab. G.

mdnamh

sumanasah

L.

manasi

sumanasi

V.

manah

sumanah

N. V. A. du.

manasi

sumanasau

I. D. Ab.

manobhyim

sumanobhyim

G.L.

manasoh

sumanasoh

N. V. A. pi.

manamsi

sumanasah

I.

manobhih

sumanobhih

D. Ab.

manobhyah

sumanobhyah

G.

manas^m

sumanas im

L.

manahsu

sumanahsu

The neuter of sumanas is inflected like manas. Table Az.i gives
examples of stems ending in other consonants.

Table A2.1

Stem

N.sg.

N. pi.

I.pl.

L. pi.

suyudh m. good fighter

suyut

suyudhah

suyudbhih

suyutsu

kakubh f. region

kakup

kakubhah

kakubbhih

kakupsu

vie f. speech

vik

vicah

vigbhih

viksu

vanij m. businessman

vanik

vanijah

vanigbhih

vaniksu

parivii) m. medicant

parivrit

parivrijah

parivridbhih

parivritsu

dis f. direction

dik

disah

digbhih

diksu

vis m. settler

vif

visah

vidbhih

vifsu

dvis m. enemy

dvit

dvisah

dvidbhih

dvitsu

madhulih m. bee

madhulit

madhulihah

madhulidbhih

madhulitsu

Stems in ir/ur (both rare) lengthen to Ir/Br before consonants
and in the nominative singular Stems in is/us become is/us or
ir/ur according to sandhi, and also lengthen the vowel in the
nominative, vocative and accusative neuter plural (Table Az.z).

Table A2.2

gir f. speech
dhur f. yoke
barhis n. sacred grass
caksus n. eye
is is 1 f. benediction

gih gixah

dbih dhurah

bar hill barhima

caksuh cakshmsi

iiih isisah

glrbhih

dbOrbhih

barhirbhih

caksurbhih

isirbhih

girsu

dfaDrsu

barhihsu

caksuhsu

Mlhsu

1 Although an is stem, this noun lengthens its i in the same circumstances as a
stem in ir.

Stems in in: dhanin ra./n. (dhaninl £.) ‘rich’ (Table A2.3).

Table A2.3

241

Singular

Dual

Plural

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

N.

dhanl dh^ni dhaninau dhaninl

dhaninah dhanlni

A.

dhaninam dhani

n »

dhaninah dhanlni

I.

dhanind

dhanibhyam

dhanibhih

D.

dhanine

»

dhanibhyah

Ab.

dhaninah

»

»

G.

dhaninah

dhaninoh

dhaninam

L.

dhanini

»

dhanim

V.

dhanin dhani/dhanin

(as N.)

(as N.)

Stems in an: r&jan m. ‘king’,

, Atman m. ‘self’.

n&man n. ‘name’,

panthan m. ‘road’ (irreg.) ahan n. ‘day’ (irreg.)

N. sg.

rajs

atma

nSma

A.

rajanam

atmSnam

nima

I.

rajna

atmana

nSmna

D.

rijne

atmane

n^mne

Ab. G.

rajhah

atmanah

numnah

L.

tajni/rajani

atmani

namni/n&mani

V.

rSjan

atman

nama/n&man

N. V. A. du.

rajanau

atmanau

n&mni / namani

I. D. Ab.

rajabhySm

atmabhySm

namabhyam

G.L.

rajnoh

atmanoh

namnoh

N. V. pi.

rajSnah

atmanah

nUmSni

A.

rajhah

atmanah

namani

I.

rajabhih

atmabhih

namabhih

D. Ab.

rajabhyah

atmabhyah

namabhyah

G.

rajham

atmanam

namnam

L.

rajasu

atmasu

nSmasu

N. sg.

panthah

ahar

A.

panthanam

ahar

I.

paths

ahna

D.

pathe

ahne

Ab. G.

path ah

ahnah

L.

pathi

ahni/ahani

V.

panthah

ahar

N. V. A. du.

panthanau

ahni/ahanl

I. D. Ab.

pathibhySm

ahobhySm

G.L.

pathoh

ahnoh

N. V. pi.

pan than ah

ahani

A.

pathah

ahani

I.

pathibhih

ahobhih

D. Ab.

pathibhyah

ahobhyah

G.

patham

ahnSm

L.

pathisu

ahahsu

appendix 2

Stems in ant and at: dhanavant ‘rich’, nayant ‘leading’, dadhat
‘putting’

mate. neut.

masc. neut.

N. sg.

dhanavan dhanavat

A.

dhanavantam „

I.

dhaoavati

D.

dhanavate

Ab.G.

dhanavatah

L.

dhanavad

V.

dhanavan dhanavat

N. V. A. du.

dhanavantau dhanavatl

I. D. Ab.

dhanavadbhy&m

G.L.

dhanavatoh

N. V. pi.

dhanavan tah dhanavand

A.

dhanavatah „

I.

dhanavadbhih

D. Ab.

dhanavadbhy'ah

G.

dh ana va tain

L.

dhanavatsu

nayan nayat

nayantam „

nayati
nayate
nayatah
nayad

nayan nayat

nayantau nayanti

nayadbhyhm
nayatoh

nayantah nayanti

nayatah' „

nayadbhih
nayadbhyah
nayadkm
nayatsu

masc. neut.

N. sg.
A.

L

D.

Ab.G.

L.

V.

N. V. A. du.
I. D. Ab.
G.L.

N. V. pi.

A.

I.

D. Ab.
G.

L.

dadhat dadhat

dadhatam „

dadhata
dadhate
dadhatah
dadhad

dadhat . dadhat

dadhatau dadhatl

dadhadbhyam
dadhatoh

dadhatah dadhanti

dadhatah »

dadhadbhih
dadhadbhyah

dadhatsu

Stems in yams: sreyams min. (sreyasl f.) ‘better’ (Table Az.4).

Table A2.4

Singular

Dual

Plural

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

N.

sreyhn sreyah

sreySmsau sreyasl

sreySmsah sreySmsi

A.

sreyJmsam sreyah

» r»

sreyasah sreySmsi

I.

sreyash

sreyobhyim

sreyobhih

D.

sreyase

n

sreyobhyah

Ab.

sreyasah

n

n

G.

sreyasah

sreyasoh

sreyasJm

L.

sreyasi

»

sreyahsu

V.

sreyan sreyah

(as N.)

(as N.)

Stems in v 3 ms: vidvSms m./n. (vidusi f.) ‘learned’ (Table A2.5). [243

Table A2.5

Singular

Dual

Plural

masc. neat.

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

N.

vidvHn vidvat

vidvimsau vidusi

vidvamsah vidvamsi

A.

vidv&msam vidvat

» »

vidusah vidvamsi

L

vidu&

vidvadbhyim

vidvadbhih

D.

viduse

tt

vidvadbhyah

Ab.

vidusah

tt

ft

G.

vidusah

vidusoh

vidusam

L.

vidusi

tt

vidvatsu

V.

vidvan vidvat

(as N.)

(as N.)

Stems in ana pratyanc m./n. (pratlci f.) ‘Western’ (Table A2.6).

Table A2.6

Singular

Dual

Plural

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

masc. neut.

N. V. pratyad pratyak

pratyancau pratlci

pratyancah pratyand

A.

pratyancam pratyak

ft ft

pratlcab pratyand

I.

practica

pratyagbhyam

pratyagbhih

D.

practice

ft

pratyagbhyah

Ab.

practlcah

ft

ft

G.

practical)

pratlcoh

pratlcdm

L.

pratlci

ft

pratyaksu

In words such as prAnc ‘Eastern’, where two as (pra + anc)
coalesce, the middle and weak stems are identical: prAc. Thus
ablative, genitive and locative plural prSgbhyah, prScAm, prAksu.

Pronouns

1 st person
abam T

(Enclitic forms in brackets.)

and person
tvam ‘you’

N. sg.

aham

tvam

A.

mam (ma)

tvam (tva)

I.

maya

tvaya

D.

mahyam (me)

tubhyam (te)

Ab.

mat or mattah

tvat or tvattah

G.

mama (me)

tava (te)

L.

mayi

tvayi

N. A. du.

av3m

yuv3m

I. D. Ab.

avabhyam

yuvibhySm

G.L.

avayoh

(A. D. G. nau)

yuvayoh
(A. D. G. v5m)

appendix 2

244

N. pi.

vayam

y&yam

A.

as man (nah)

yusman (vah)

1 »

•a

I.

asmabhih

yusmabhih

1

D.

asmabhyam (nah)

yusmabhyam (vah)

5

Ab.

as mat or asmattah

ynsmat or ynsmattah

1

G.

asmakam (nah)

yusmakam (vah)

to

L.

asmasu

yufmasu

3 rd person

sah ‘he, that’

masc. neut.

fem.

N. sg.

sah tat

sa

A.

tarn tat

tam

I.

tena

taya

D.

tasmai

tasyai

Ab.

tasmat

tasyah

G.

tasya

tasyah

L.

tasmin

tasyam

N. A. du.

tau te

te

I. D. Ab.

tabhySm

G.L.

tayoh

N. pi.

te tani

tah

A.

tan tani

tab

I.

taih

tabhih

D.

tebhyah

tabhyah

Ab.

tebhyah

tabhyah

G.

tesam

tasam

L.

tern

tasu

The accusative singular enclitic forms ma and tva are seldom
used in the Classical language.

The following pronouns foUow the inflexion of sah, tat, sa in
any forms not quoted here.

(a) esah, etat, es5 this

(b) yah, yat, ya who? relative pronoun

(c) anyah, anyat, anya other

(d) kah, 1dm, ka who? interrogative pronoun

(e) sarvah, sarvam, sarva all
(/) ekah, ekam, eka one

(g) svah, svam, sva own

ayam ‘this’

masc .

neut.

fem.

N. sg.

ayam

idam

iyam

A.

imam

idam

imam

I.

anena

anaya

D.

asmai

asyai

Ab.

asn&t

asyah

G.

asya

asyah

L.

asmin

asyam

245

D.

amusmai

amusyai

Ab.

amusmSt

amusyih

G.

amufya

amusyjh

L.

amnonin

amusyain

N. A. du.

amO

1. D. Ab.

antibhyam

G.L.

amuyoh

N. pi.

ami <>ntfni

anfih

A.

am fin amflni

aiafth

I.

amlbhih

amAbhih

D. Ab.

amlbhyah

amDbhyah

G.

amisSm

amflsam

L.

amlsu

amQsu

i N. A. du.

imau ime

ime

' L D. Ab.

abhyam

G.L.

anayoh

N. pi.

ime irnSni

imah

A.

imSfi imSni

imah

1.

ebiuh

abhih

D. Ab.

ebhyah

abhyah

G.

esam

asam

L.

esu

asu

asau ‘that’

masc. neut.

fem.

N.sg.

asau adah

asau

A.

amuin adah

atnflm

1

amuna

amuya

For the pronoun enam ‘him’ see Chapter io, p. 12.7.

Numerals

Cardinals

1 eka

2 dvi

3 «»

4 catur

5 pafica

6 sas

7 sapta

8 asta

9 nava
ro dasa

11 ekadasa
ii dvjdasa

13 trayodasa

14 caturdasa
13 pancadasa

1 6 $0 dasa

17 saptadasa

18 ast&dasa

j jnavadasa
9 1 Ona:vimsati
20 vimsati
23 trayo;vimsati
30 trimsat
33 trayas;trimsat

40 catvSrimsat

41 eka;catvarimsat

42 dvajcatvirimsat

43 tri;catvarimsat

44 catusjcatvarimsat
43 panca;catv§ritniat
4 6 satjcatvarimsat

47 sapta;catv 5 riinsat

48 asta;carv 5 rimsat

[ nava;catvarimsat

49 I flna:pancasat
30 pantiksat

appendix 2

appendix 2

246

60 safti
70 saptati
80 asiti
8a dvy:asiri
90 navati
96 san; navati
too sataiji

dvy-adhikam
102 iatam
dvijsatam

i ldvi:satain
1000 sahasram
100 000 laksam
10 000 000 koti

Ordinals

ist prathama
2nd dvitlya
3rd trtlya

4th caturtha, turlya, torya
5th pancama
6th sastha
7th saptama
8th as tama
9th navama
10th dasatna
nth-i8thiW cardinals
19th navadasa, Qnavimsa
20th vitnsa, vimsatitama
30th trimsa, trimsattama
40th catv 3 rim$a,

catvirimsattama
joth pandsa,

pandksattama
60th sasdtama
61st ekasasta
70th saptatitama
71st ekasaptata
80th asititama
8 1 st el&sMa
90th navati tama
91st ekanavata
tooth satatama

To form the cardinal numbers not included in the list, the anal-
ogy of 41 to 49 may be followed, though some alternative forms
are possible.

For the ordinals 60th, 70th, 80th, 90th by themselves only the
forms in -tama are allowed. But wherever short forms are per-
mitted, the forms in -tama are always a possible alternative:
thus 61st ekasasta or ekasasdtama.

The sandhi of sas is as if it were fat, except that sas + d = sod
and sas + n = sann.

The ordinals are all inflected like k&nta. Their feminine is always
in -1, except for prathama, dvitlya, trtiya, turlya and turya.

f

\ Inflexion of cardinals

i Hie cardinal numbers below ioo are ail quoted above in stem
; form, vimsati and higher numbers ending in -i are feminine i
stems; those ending in -t are feminine consonant stems.

The inflexion of eka is mentioned under the pronouns, dvi
inflects like the dual of kSnta: dvau, dve, dve; dvabhySm;

dvayoh.

tri three

N. V.

trayah trim

tisrah

A.

trill trini

tisrah

L

tribhih

tisrbhih

D.Ab.

tribhyah

tisrbhyah

G.

trayaidm

tisrnJm

L.

trim

tisrsu

catur four

N. V.

catvirah catvSri

catasrah

A.

caturah catv&ri

catasrah

I.

caturbhih

catasrbhih

D.Ab.

caturbhyah

catasrbhyah

G.

caturfl&m

catasrnSm

L.

catursu

catasrsu

panca five sas six

asm eight

N. V. A.

panca p;

a^a/anau

I.

pancabhih sadbhih

asubhih/asQbhih

D.Ab.

pancabhyah sadbhyah

anabhyah/as^bhyah

G.

pancinam sannSm

astaoSm

L.

pancasu satsu

astasu/astdsu

247

The numbers 7 and 9 to 19 inflect like panca.

Verbs

General view of the Sanskrit verb

The following scheme (which is not exhaustive) will give some
idea of the range of possible formations from the verbal root. The
second column adds parallel formations from the most highly de-
veloped secondary stem, the causative. For the particular verb
quoted, some forms are theoretical rather than actually found.

1 Finite formations

From the root ni ‘lead’ From the stem nay(aya) ‘cause

to lead’

appendix 2

248

Primary verb

Secondary verb

Present

Present causative

£

nayati ‘he leads’

nSyayati ‘he causes to lead’

1

(Included in the present system:

( Imperfect an3yayat ‘he caused

E

Imperfect anayat ‘he led’

to lead’

K

to

Imperative nayatu ‘let him

Imperative nJyayatu ‘let him

lead’

cause to lead’

Optative nayet ‘he may lead')

Optative nJyayet ‘he may cause

to lead’)

Perfect

Periphrastic perfect

nin3ya ‘he led’

nayayten tea ‘he caused to lead’

Aorist

Reduplicated aorist (an

independent formation)

anaisit ‘he led’

anlnayat 'he caused to lead’

Future

ne^rati ‘he will lead’

Future causative
idyayisyatt ‘he will cause to

lead’)

( Conditional anesyat ‘he

(anSyayisyat ‘he would have

would have led’)

caused to lead’)

Passive

Causative passive

niyate ‘he is led’

n&yyate ‘he is caused to lead’

Secondary verbs

Tertiary verb

Causative (see above, second

Desiderative causative

column)

nSyayad ‘he causes to lead’

ninfyayrati ‘he wants to cause

to lead’

Desiderative

ninisati ‘he wants to lead’

( Adjective ninlsu ‘wanting to lead’

ninayayifn ‘wanting to cause
to lead’

Substantive ninlfi ‘the wish to lead’)
Intensive

nenlyate ‘he leads forcibly’

nin&yayi^i ‘the wish to cause to lead’)

Two further independent formations from the root are the aorist

passive (third person singular only) anayi ‘he was led’ and the
precative, or benedictive, an aorist optative, nlyat ‘may he lead!’

Parasmaipada or Stmanepada participles, as appropriate, may be
formed from the present, the future and all other formations in
•ati/-ate. The aorist has no participle, and of the perfect participles
the parasmaipada is infrequent and the atmanepada hardly found.

2 Nominal formations

With weak grade

Past participle
nlta ‘led’

nSyita ‘caused to lead’

Past active participle
nltavant ‘having led’

njyitavant ‘having caused to lead*

249

Absolutive

(uncompounded) nltvj
‘after leading’

(after prefix) -nlya

niyayitvS

-nayya

‘after causing to lead’

With strong grade

Infinitive
netum ‘to lead’

Agent noun
nett ‘leader*

Gerundives

(a) neya ‘(requiring) to be led’

(b) netavya „

(c) nayaniya „

nSyayitam *to cause to lead’

ndyayitt 'causer of leading’

nayya ‘(requiring) of be caused’
nayayitavya „

nayaniya „

3 Remoter nominal formations

Formations of the following types may be regarded as less inte-
grated into the verbal structure. Often they are lacking in par-
ticular roots or have developed some independent meaning.
They fall into two broad categories:

(a) Action nouns (‘leading, guidance’): nayanam; nayah ‘prudent
conduct’; niti f. ‘prudent conduct’

(b) Agentives (‘that lead’): -nl; -nAyin; nSyakah ‘leading actor’;
netram ‘(instrument of guidance:] eye’ (nayanam may also
have this sense).

Present paradigms

Thematic paradigm

The inflexions of the present system of class I verbs, as
illustrated by nl, are shared by class IV, VI and X, the future, the
passive and all derivative verbs in ati/ate (which means all
derivative verbs except one type of intensive).

nl ‘lead’

Present Imperfect Imperative Optative

parasmaipada

istsg.

nay&mi

anayam

nayini

nayeyam

znd

nayasi

anayah

naya

nayeh

3rd

nayati

anayat

nayatu

nayet

istdu.

naySvah

anaySva

nay 3 va

nayeva '

znd

nayathah

anayatam

nay at am

nayetam

3rd

nayatah

anayattm

nayatim

nayetSm

appendix 2

appendix 2

l

250

ist pi.

nayamah

anayama

nayama

nayema

2nd

nayatha

anayata

nayata

nayeta

3rd

nayanti

anayan

nayantu

nayeyuh

Part.

nayant

Stmanepada

ist sg.

naye

anaye

nayai

nayeya

2nd

nayase

anayathah

nayasva

nayethah

3rd

nayate

anayata

nayatam

nayeta

ist du.

nayavahe

anayavahi

nayavahai

nayevahi

2nd

nayethe

anayetham

nayetham

nayeya tham

3rd

nayete

anayetam

nayetam

nayeya tam

ist pi.

naySmahe

anayimahi

nayamahai

nayemahi

2nd

nayadhve

anayadhvam

nayadhvam

nayedhvam

3rd

nay ante

anayan ta

nayantam

nayeran

Part.

nayamana

Class II (root class)

dvis ‘hate’

Present

Imperfect

Imperative

Optative

parasmaipada

ist sg.

dve?mi

advesam

dvesani

dvigySm

2nd

dveksi

adve;

dviddhi

dvisyah

3rd

dvesti

advet

dvestu

dvisyat

ist du.

dvisvah

advifva

dvesava

dvisyava

2nd

dvisthah

advistam

dvistam

dvisyatam

3rd

dvistah

advistam

dvistam

dvifyatam

ist pi.

dvismah

advisma

dveskma

dvisyama

2nd

dvistha

■ advista

d vista

dvisyata

3rd

dvisanti

advisan

dvisantu

dvisyuh

Part.

dvisant

atmanepada

ist sg.

dvise

advisi

dvesai

dvislya

2nd

dvikse

advisthah

dviksva

dvisithah

3rd

dviste

advista

dvistam

dvisita

ist du.

dvisvahe

advisvahi

dvesavahai

dvislvahi

2nd

dvisathe

advisatham

dvisatham

dvisiyatham

3rd

dvisate

advistam

d visa tam

dvisiyatam

ist pi.

dvismahe

advismahi

dvesamahai

dvislmahi

2nd

dviddhve

adviddhvam

dviddhvam

dvisidhvam

3rd

dvisate

advisata

dvisatam

dvisiran

Part.

dvisana

as ‘be’ is ‘sit, stay’

Present Imperfect Imperative Present Imperfect Imperative
parasmaipada itmanepada

ist sg.

asmi

asam

Af&ni

a$e

asi

a$ai

2nd

asi

asih

edhi

asse

asthah

assva

3rd

asti

asit

astu

aste

3 sta

astam

ist du.

svah

a$va

asava

asvahe

asvahi

asavahai

2nd

sthah

as tam

stam

asathe

Mtlilm

asatham

3rd

stah

astam

scam

as cate

asacam

asatam

ISt pi.

small

a$ma

asdma

Ssmahe

asmahi

asamahai

2nd

stha

5 sta

sta

iddhve

addhvam

addhvam

3rd

sand

asan

santn

isate

asata

asatam

Opt.

sy&m,

aslya,

syah etc.

asithah etc.

Part.

sant

aslna (irreg.)

i ‘go*

i ‘go’ (in adhi + i ‘study’)

Present

Imperfect

Imperarive

Present

Imperfect

Imperative

parasmaipada

itmanepada

ISt sg.

emi

&yam

ayani

iye

aiyi

ayai

2nd

e?i

aih

ihi

ise

aithah

isva

3rd

ed

ait

era

ice

aita

itam

ist du. ivah

aiva

ayava

ivahe

aivahi

ayavahai

2nd

ithah

aitam

itam

iyathe

aiyatbam

iyatham

3rd

itah

aitim

idm

iyate

aiyatam

iyatam

ISt pi.

imah

aima

aySma

imahe

aimahi

ayamahai

2nd

itha

aita

ita

idhve

aidhvam

idhvam

3rd

yand

iyan

yanra

iyate

aiyata

iyatam

Opt.

iyJm,

iyiya.

iyah etc.

iylthah etc.

Part.

yam

iyana

251

Class III (reduplicated class)

hu ‘sacrifice’

Present

Imperfect

Imperative

Optative

parasmaipada

ISt sg.

juhomi

ajuhavam

juhav 3 ni

juhuyam

2nd

jtihosi

ajuhoh

juhudhi

juhuyah

3rd

juhod

ajuhot

juhotu

juhuyat

ist du.

juhuvah

ajuhuva

juhavava

juhuyava

2nd

juhuthah

ajuhutam

juhutam

juhuyatam

3rd

juhutah

ajuhutam

juhutam

juhuyatam

ist pi.

juhumah

ajuhuma

juhavama

juhuyama

2nd

juhutha

ajuhuta

juhuta

juhuyata

3rd

juhvati

ajuhavuh

juhvatu

juhuyuh

Part.

juhvat

The second person singular imperative juhudhi (instead of
*juhuhi) is anomalous.

Mmanepada

ist sg.

juhve

ajuhvi

juhavai

juhvlya

2nd

j uhuse

ajuhuthah

juhusva

juhvithah

3rd

juhute

ajuhuta

juhutam

juhvtta

ist du.

juhuvahe

ajuhuvahi

juhavavahai

juhvivahi

2nd

juhvathe

ajuhvatham

juhvatham

juhvlya tham

3rd

juhvate

ajuhvatam

juhvatam

juhvlyatam

ist pi.

juhumahe

ajuhumahi

juhavamahai

juhvimahi

2nd

juhudhve

ajuhudhvam

juhudhvam

juhvidhvam

appendix 2

appendix 2

252

3rd

Part.

jnhvate ajuhvata

juhvana

jubvatam juhvlran

Class V (mi class)

su ‘press’

Present

Imperfect

Imperative

parasmarpada

ISt sg.

stinomi

asunavam

sunavani

and

sunosi

asunoh

sunu

3rd

sunoti

asunot

sunotu

istdu.

sunuvah/sunvab

asunuva/ asunva

sunavava

and

sunutbab

asunutam

sunutam

3rd

sunutah

asunutim

sunutam

1st pi.

sunumah/sunmah

asunnma/asunma

sunavama

and

sunutha

asunuta

sunuta

3rd

sunvand

asunvan

sunvantu

Opt.

sunuyJm etc.

Part.

sunvant

Stmanepada

rst sg.

sunve

asunvi

sunavai

and

sunuse

asunuthah

sunusva

3rd

sunute

asunuta

sunutam

1st du.

sunuvabe/sunvahe

asunuvahi/asunvahi

sunavavahai

and

sun va the

asunva tham

sunvatbam

3rd

sunvate

asunva tarn

sunvatam

1st pi.

sunumahe/ sunmahe

asuntunahi/asunmahi

sunavamahai

and

sunudhve

asunudhvam

sunudhvam

3rd

sunvate

asunvata

sunvatam

Opt.

sunvfya etc.

Part.

sun vina

Class VII

(infix nasal class)

rudh ‘obstruct’

Present

Imperfect

Imperative

Optative

parasmaipada

ISt sg.

runadhmi

arunadbam

runadhani

rundhyam

and

runatsi

arunat

runddhi

rundfayah

3rd

runaddhi

arunat

runaddbu

rundhyat

1st du.

rundhvah

arundhva

runadhava

rundhyava

and

runddhah

arunddham

runddham

rundhyttam

3rd

raddbah

arunddham

runddbam

rundbyatam

1st pi.

rundhmah

arundhma

runadbama

rundhyama

and

runddha

arunddha

runddha

rundbyata

3rd

rundhanti

arundhan

rundhantu

rundhyuh

Part.

rundhant

Otmanepada

ISt sg.

rundhe

arundhi

runadbai

rundhiya

and

runtse

arunddhah

runtsva

rundhlthah

3rd

runddhe

arunddha

runddham

rundhita

1st du.

rundhvahe

anindhvahi

runadhavahai

rundhlvahi

and

rundhatbe

amndtetham

rondhatham

rundhlyatham

3rd

rundhate

arundhat&m

rundhatam

rundhlyatam

ist pi.

mndhmahe

arundhmahi

nmadhamahai

rundhlmahi

and

runddhve

arunddhvam

runddhvam

rundhidhvam

3rd

rundhate

arundhata

rundhatam

rundhtran

Part.

rundtona

Class VIII (u class)

kr ‘do’

Present

Imperfect Imperative

Optative

parasmaipada

istsg.

karomi

akaravam

karavani

kuryam

and

karosi

akaroh

kuru

kuryah

3rd

karoti

akarot

karotu

kuryat

1st du.

kurvah

akurva

karav 3 va

kuryiva

and

ku ruth ah

akurutam

kurutam

kuryatam

3rd

kurutah

akurutam

kurutam

kuryitam

rstpl.

kurmah

akurma

karavama

kuryama

and

kurutha

akuruta

kuruta

kuryata

3rd

kurvanti

akurvan

kurvantu

kuryuh

Part.

kurvant

253

dtmanepada

ISt sg.

kurve

akurvi

karavai

kurviya

and

kuruse

akuruthah

kurusva

kurvithah

3rd

kurute

akuruta

kurutam

kurvlta

1st du.

kurvahe

akurvahi

karavavahai

kurvlvahi

and

kurvathe

akurvatham

kurvatham

kurvlyatham

3rd

kurvate

akurva tarn

kurvatam

kurviyatSm

ist pi.

kunnahe

akurmahi

karavamahai

kurvlmahi

and

kurudhve

akurudhvam

kurudhvam

kurvtdhvam

3rd

Part.

kurvate

kurvana

akurva ta

kurvatam

kurviran

The other seven verbs of this class inflect like su.

Class IX (na class)

krl ‘buy’

Present

Imperfect

Imperative

Optative

parasmaipada

istsg.
and
3rd
ist du.

krinami

krlnasi

krlnati

krlnlvah

||l|

krinani

krinihi

krlnatu

krlnava

krlntyam

krinlyah

krlniyat

kriniyava

appendix 2

appendix 2

2nd

krlnithah

akrinitam

krlnltam

kriniyitam

3rd

krlnitah

. akrlnitam

krinitim

krinlyitim

xstpl

krlnlmah

akrinlma

krinima

kriniyima

2nd

krinitha

akrlnlta

krlnlta

kriniyita

3rd

Part.

krlnand
Ict inant

akrinan

krinantu

kriniyuh

atmanepada

1st sg.

krlne

akrlni

krlnai

kriniya

2nd

krlnlse

akrinlthih

krinlsva

krlnithah

3rd

krlnite

akrlnlta

krlnltam

krlnlta

istdu.

krinlvahe

aktlidvahi

krinivahai

krlnlvahi

2nd

krinithe

akrinAthim

krinAthim

krlniyithim

3rd

krlnite

akrlnitam

krinitim

kriniyitim

1st pi.

krinimahe

akrinlmahi

krinAmahai

krlnimahi

2nd

krinidhve

akrlnldhvam

krinidhvam

krinidhvam

3rd

Part.

krinate

krtaina

krinatAm

kriniran

Perfect paradigms

drs ‘see’

kr ‘do’

vac ‘speak’

pac ‘cook’

dhi ‘put’

parasmatpada

istsg. dadarsa

cakara/cakira

uvaca/uvica

papaca/papica dadhau

2nd dadarsitha

cakartha

nvaktha/

papaktha/

dadhitha/

uvadtha

pedtha

dadhitha

3rd dadarsa

cakira

uvica

pa pica

dadhau

rst du. dadrsiva

cakrva

Odva

pedva

dadhiva

2nd dadrsathuh

cakrathuh

death uh

pecathnh

dadhathuh

3rd dadrsatuh

cakratuh

Qcatuh

pecatuh

dadhatuh

1st pi. dadrsima

caknna

Qcima

pedma

dadhima

2nd dadrsa

cakra

flea

peca

dadha

3rd dadrsuh

cakruh

flcuh

pecuh

dadhuh

Part, dadjsivims

cakrvims

OcivAms

pectvims

dadhivims

Atmanepeda

istsg. dadrse

cakre

flee

pece

dadhe

2nd dadrsise

cakrse

fldse

pecise

dadhise

3rd dadjse

cakre

flee

pece

dadhe

1st du. dadisivahe

cakjvahe

fldvahe

pedvahe

dadhivahe

2nd dadrsithe

cakrithe

fleithe

pecithe

dadhithe

3rd dadrsite

cakrite

Qcite

pecite

dadhite

1st pi. dadrsimahe

cakrmahe

fldmahe

pedmahe

dadhimahe

2nd dadrsidhve

cakrdhve

flddhve

peddhve

dadhidhve

3rd dadrsire

cakrire

fleire

pecire

dadhire

Part, dadrsina

cakrina

fleina

peeflna

dadhina

as ‘be’ (parasmaipada): asa asitha asa; asiva asathuh asatuh;
asima asa asuh— no participle.

255

Aorist paradigms

Non-sigmatic aorists

Root aorist

a-aorist

Reduplicated aorist

dha ‘put’

bhfl ‘be’

sic Moisten’

ni (cause to) ‘lead’

parasmaipada

ISt sg.

adham

abbOvam

asicam

aninayam

2nd

adhah

abhfih

asicah

anlnayah

3rd

adhat

abhfit

asicat

anlnayat

1st du.

adhava

abbQva

asicava

aninayjva

2nd

adhatam

abbQtam

asicatam

anlnayatam

3rd

adhatam

abfaOtam

asicatam

anlnayatam

ISt pi.

adhJma

abbOma

asicama

aninayjma

2nd

adhata

abbot a

asicata

aninayata

3rd

adhuh

abbQ van

asican

anlnayan

dtmanepada

istsg.

asice

aninaye

2nd

asicathah

anlnayatbah

3rd

asicata

aninayata

1st du.

asicavahi

anlnayivahi

2nd

asicetfaam

anlnayetbam

3rd

asicetam

aninayetam

ist pi.

asicam ahi

aninayam ahi

2nd

asicadhvam

aninayadhvam

3rd

asican ta

aninayanta

Sigmatic aorists

s-aorist

is-aorist

sis-aorist

sa-aorist

After vowel

After consonant

nl ‘lead’

dah ‘burn’

pO ‘purify’
parasmaipada

ya ‘go’

dis ‘point’

ist sg.

anaitam

adhaksam

apavisam

ayasisam

adiksam

and

anaislb

adhaksih

apivlh

ayasih

adiksah

3rd

anaislt

adbakslt

apavit

ayastt

adiksat

ist du.

anaisva

adbaksva

apavisva

ayasisva

adiksava

2nd

anaistam

a dag dh am

apavistam

ayasistam

adiksatam

3rd

anaistam

adagdham

apavistam

ayasistam

adiksatam

ist pi.

anaisma

adhaksma

apavisma

ayasisma

adiksama

2nd

anaista

adagdha

apa vista

ayasista

adiksata

3rd

anaisuh

adhiksub

apavisuh

ayJsisuh

adiksan

appendix 2

appendix 2

256

ist sg. anesi
and anephlh
3rd anesta
ist du. anesvahi
and anesi thim
3rd anesi tim
ist pi. anesmahi
and anedhvam
3rd anesata

adhaksi

adagdhih

adagdha

adhakfvahi

adhaksithvm

adhaksi tim

adhaksmahi

adhagdhvam

adhaksata

Stmanepada

apavisi

apavisthih

apavista

apavisvahi

apavisithim

apavisi tim

apavipnahi

apavidhvam

apavisata

adiksi

adiksathih

adik$ata

adiksi vahi

adik&thhm

adiksi tim

adiksimabi

adiksadhvam

adiksanta

Precative

bhQ ‘be’ (parasmaipada): bfaQydsam bbGyah bhfiyat; bhuyasva
bbfiy&stam bhQyastam; btay&ma bbflyasta blniyasuh.

[Principal parts of verbs

The following list of verbs (arranged in Sanskrit alphabetical
order) shows the main formations from each root. The less im-
portant verbs and those, such as class X verbs, whose derivative
forms are obvious are omitted. The past participle is to be taken
as a guide to the formation of the past active participle and of
the uncompounded absolutive in -tvS; the infinitive to the for-
mation of the agent noun and of the gerundive in tavya.
Similarly, the gerundive in anlya, when it is found, is based on
the verbal noun in ana (here normally given as anam since it is
most often a neuter substantive). Where parasmaipada and at-
manepada forms both exist, only the former are mentioned. A
blank indicates that the part of the verb in question is not
known to appear in Classical Sanskrit; and even of those forms
given some are rare or dubious.

257

appendix 2

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appendix 2

appendix 2

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appendix 2

appendix 2

appendix 2

appendix 2

268

1 Anustubh

■ a

Normal form:

oooow o/oooo^_»o (half-verse)

(i) The second or third syllable of each pada must be heavy.

(ii) The half-verse must not end ~ - o.

Permitted variant forms of the first or third pada:

(a) (i.e. the fourth syllable as well as the

o — « J second or third must be heavy)

(b) O— « — — vvO

( c ) o - / o (caesura after fifth syllable)

(d) ooo — / (caesura after fourth syllable)

2 Samacatuspadi metres (in order
of length)

(Name; analysis, including caesura; definition, normally taken
from Kedara’s Vrttaratriakara.)

Indravajra (t t j g g)

syad Indravajra yadi tau ja;gau gah

Upendravajra — (j t j g g)

Upendravajra ja;ta;ja$ tato gau
Upajad Any mixture of Indravajra and Upendravajra padas
(i.e. first syllable light or heavy at will)

Rathoddhata - - — - (r n r 1 g)

ran na ;rav iha Rathoddhata la;gau

Vamsastha - — — (j t j r)

ja;tau tu Vamsastham udiritam ja;rau

appendix 3: classical metres

appendix 3

270

Indravamsa — (ttjr)

sy&d Indra vanish ta;ta;jai ra-samyutaih
Vamsamala Any mixture of Vamsastha and IndravamsS padas
(i.e. first syllable light or heavy at will)

Vasantatilaka (tbhjjgg)

ukta Vasantatilaka ta;bha;ja ja;gau gah

MalinI /-- (nnmyy 8 + 7)

na;na;ma;ya;ya-yut» eyam / MalinI bhogi;lokaih

Sikharini ---(ymnsbhlg

6 + 11)

rasai rudrais chinnS / ya;ma;na;sa;bha;la gah Sikharini

Harini — / — — — (nsmrslg

6 + 4 + 7)

rasa;yuga;hayair / n;sau mjrau s;lau go / yada Harini tada

Mandakranta (mbhnttgg

4 + 6 + 7)

Mandakranta / jaladhi;sad;agair / m;bhau na;tau tad
gurQ cet

Sardulavikrlditam v —

(m s j s 1 1 g 12 + 7)

sQry>;asvair yadi mat sa;jau sa;ta;ta;gah /

^ardQlavikriditam

Sragdhara »_,/»«

(mrbhnyyy 7 + 7 + 7)

m;ra;bh;nair yanam trayena / tri;muni:yati-yuta / Sragdhara
klrtit» eyam

y

bh

Symbolic numbers

r

| W a w

4 yuga (age of world); jaladhi

t

S w w —

(ocean)

m

0 v w v

6 rasa (flavour)

g-

1-

7 loka (world); asva, haya (horse);
aga (mountain); muni (star of
Great Bear)

8 bhogin (serpent-demon)

1 1 rudra (god)

1 a sOrya (sun)

3 ArdhasamacatuspadT metres

(The bracketed syllable occurs only in the second and fourth
padas.)

Viyogml (—)'»« — (s s j g + s bh r 1 g)

visame sa;sa;ja guruh, same
sa;bha;ra lo >tha gurar Viyogml

Malabharinl - - — (s s j g g + s bh r y)

sa;sa;jih prathame pade guru cet
sa;bha;ra yena ca Malabharinl sySt
Aparavaktra ~ — — (nnrlg + njjr)
a:yuji na;na;ra;la guruh, same
tad Aparavaktram idam na;jau ja;rau

Puspitagra — - — (n n r y + n j j r g)

a:yuji na-yuga;repha~to yakaro
yuji ca na;jau ja;ra;g 3 s ca Puspitagra

(Note: Both the first two metres are known by a number of
other names.)

4 Arya

7 8

— — — (half-verse)

In the usual form of the second half-verse a light syllable
replaces the whole of the sixth foot. Such a stanza, made up of
30 + 27 matras, constitutes the Arya proper.

Arya 30 + 27
Udglti Z7 + 30
Upaglti 27 + 27
Glti 30 + 30

Aryagiti or Skandhaka 32-1-32 (i.e. the eighth foot is
extended to — or - — )

. appendix 3

Sanskrit-English exercises: transcription

272

Exercise 2b i gacchami 2 atra na praviSamah 3 punar api
likhati 4 adhuna leva vasatha? 5 evam icchasi? 6 kva punas
ti$|hanti? 7 katham, ita agacchati? 8 atra kim anayatah?
9 paSyami likhSmi ca 10 bhramat> iva 11 rutyatho gSyathafi
ca 12 smaranti ca Socanti ca 13 ‘atra praviSava’ iti vadatah
14 adhuna >pi katharp n> agacchati? 15 jayam> iti madyami
1 6 na jlvant> iti Socamah

Exercise 3a 1 acSryaip Si§ya anayanti 2 apy aSvan icchasi?
3 ahaqi suryajeandrau paSyami 4 sukhatn ko n> ecchati?
5 svalpaip bhojanam 6 jalam aSvan naro nayati 7 ‘kas tvam?’
iti miip prcchatah 8' karp parvatarp papdito gacchati? 9 atra
krodho na vasat> iti vanaxp praviSatah 10 Slghraip vacanaip
n> avagacchamah 1 1 5 c 5 rya, parvata iva sa gajah 12 kam punah
pfcchami? 13 kiip §i?ya yQyam? 14 jalaip nara ;balah pra-
vi§anti 15 ‘ramaplyam adhuna tat phalam’ iti vismita vadanti
1 6 katham, atr> api balah? 17 duhkhany api phalam anayanti
18 ‘bala, atra kiip sukhaip pa§yath>?’ eti $i§yan acaryo vadati

Exercise 4a 1 putraih saha grham tyajati 2 etad udya-
nam— praviiamah 3 acaryepa ca §i?yaiS c> adbhutah prayatnah
krtah 4 priyo madlyo vayasya iti jlvitam etena tyaktam 5 ka
e$a grham agacchati? 6 ramaplyena darSanena kim na madyasi?
7 dr§tam avagataip ca 8 ‘atr> aite narah kim icchant>?’ iti
kutiihalena grham praviSati 9 dtiram eva nagaraip, vayana ca
pariSranta bhramamah 10 icchath> aiv> aitan, na va? 11 ‘krtam
vacanaip gato >vasara’ iti vi$ 3 dena vadatah 1 2 putrah, sa ev> ai$o
>vasarah 13 ete vayaip nagaram agatah 14 vismrto vayasya-
bhyaip prathamo vi$ 5 dah 15 ‘he papdita, tvam a§vam leva
nayas>?’ iti pr?{o >pi vacanaip na vadati 16 kiip prayatnena?— n>
aiva tv 3 ip paSyati devah

Exercise 5 a i imau svah 2 prativacanam me Srutva kim
anyad icchanti? 3 n> asty eva te pustakam 4 vayasya,
hfdayam iv> asi mama 5 asminn udyane muhurtam upaviSavah
6 k$etre$u sarve bhramanti 7 deva, anyasman nagarad brah-
mapah kaScid agatah 8 kam upayam paSyasi mama putrapaip
darSanaya? 9 krodham asya d{$tv» avega iva no hfdaye 10
a yarn kumaras ti^fhati 11 katham, k§anam ev> opaviSya dp$fe
maya punar api mitre 12. anyah ko >pi margo na bhavati 13
duhkhay> aiva mitrSpam idaniip Ramasya darSanam 14 anye-
bhyo >pi deven> aitac chrutam 15 gjham praviSya ‘kva kv>
edSnlm sa papa?’ iti sarvan prcchati 1 6 andhanam de§e kapa
eva prabhavati 17 Kalahamsaka, ken> aitan Madha vasya prat-
icchandakam abhilikhitam?

Exercise 6a 1 Sopottare, kim agamana-prayojanam? 2
ka?{am, anartha-dvayam apatitam 3 maharaja, api kuSalam
kum§ra:Lak?mapasya ? 4 kutah punar iyarp vartta? 5 satyam
itthaqubhuta ev> asmi 6 amatya, vistlrpah Kusumapura-
vjttantah 7 tvam aryabhih putra iva grhitah 8 katamasmin
pradeSe Mario-aSramah? 9 amba, ka >si? kim-artham ahaip
tvaya prati$iddhah? 10 nanv anuSaya-sthanam etat n s» aiv>
Syam 12 ubhabhyam api vaqi Vasava-niyojyo Duh§antah
prapamati 13 ka?fa khalu seva 14 na khalu Vf?alasya Sravapa-
patham upagato >yaip maya lqtafc Kaumudlmahotsava-prati-
§edhah? 15 kiip tav> anaya cintayS? 16 Madhavya, apy asti te
Sakuntala-darSanarp prati kutuhalam? 17 Srotriya-likhitany
ak$arapi prayatnalikhitany api niyatam asphutani bhavanti

Exercise 7 a 1 aye, iyam devi 2 pratibodhita ev> asmi ken> api
3 idam amatya:Rak?asa-grham 4 aho vatsaiena suhrda viyuktah
smah 5 su:vicintitaip bhagavatya 6 5 rya, api sahya Siro-
vedana? 7 lajjayati mam atyanta.-saujanyam e$am 8 tena
h> imaqa k§ira-vrk§a-cchayam aSrayamah 9 ciram adar§anen>
aryasya vayam udvignah 10 svagatam devyai 11 alam asmad-
avinay>-a§ankaya 12 amatya, kalpitam anena yogacurpa-
raiSram au$adham Candraguptaya 13 aye, Urva£I-gatra-sparSad
iva nirvrtarp me Sarlram 14 arye, kim atyahitarp Sita:devyah?
15 yavad iman vedl-saipstarap>-artharp darbhan jtvigbhya upa-
harami 1 6 kathitam AvalokitayS ‘Madan>-odyanam gato
MSdhava’ iti 17 ka${am, ubhayor apy asthane yatnah 18 n>
ayatp katha-vibhago >smabhir anyena va §ruta: piirvah 19
vayam api tSvad bhavatyau sakhl-gatam kiipcit prcchamah 20
amatya, idam abharapam kumarepa sva:£arirad avatSrya pre?itam

274|
3

i

if

s-

1

o

Exercise 8a i hanta, siddh>iarthau svah a kjtarp Rama-
sadrgam karma 3 asti dak$ipapathe Padmapuraip nama na-
garam 4 vayasya, itah stambh>-apavaritaiSarirau tisthavah 5
ramaplyah khalu divas>-avas 5 na-vrttanto raja-vegmani 6 kim-
artham a:grhlta;mudrah katakan ni$kramasi? 7 vatsa, alam
atm>-aparadha-gapkaya 8 bho bhoh, kimiprayojano >yam agvah
parivrtah paryafati? 9 karn punar atrabhavatlm avagacchami?
10 kumara, n> ayam atyanta:durbodho >rthah n kim tv
amatya:Rak$asag Capakye baddhaivairo, na Candragupte iz
tad e$a svayam parlk^itaigupan brahmapan pre§ayami 13 ha
ka$tam, atiblbhatsa;karma nfgamso >smi samvrttah 14 katham,
kftaimaha:>paradho >pi bhagavatlbhyam anukampito Ramah

15 yavad idanlm avasitaisamdhya-japyam maharajam paSyami

1 6 sa tad» aiva devySh Sltayas tadrSam daiva-durvipjLkam
upaSrutya vaikhanasah samvrttah 17 axphalam an:i?{aiphalaip
va Daruvarmapah prayatnam adhigacchami 18 sundari,
aiparinirvapo divasah 19 Sakuntala-darganad eva mand>;aut-
sukyo >smi nagara-gamanam prati

Exercise 9a 1 kim uktavan asi? z saqiprati nivartamahe
vayam 3 krt>iafijalih prapamati 4 sarvan abhivadaye vah 5
sakhe Pupdarlka, n> altad anurupam bhavatah 6 yavad up-
asthitaip homa-velaip gurave nivedayami 7 kaccid aham iva
vismrtavaips tvam api? 8 paravanto vayam vismayena 9 arya,
api gatror vyasanam upalabdham? 10 tat kim ity aSahkase?
11 aham adhunayath » -adi§{am anuti§thami iz bhagavan, na
khalu kagcid a:vi§ayo nama dhlmatSm 13 Sakuntala sakhlm
angulya tarjayati 14 sadhu sakhe Bhurivaso sadhu 15 kim
ayaqi pratibuddho >bhihitavan? 1 6 atha s 5 tatrabhavati
kimxakhyasya raja:rseh patni? 17 bhadra, ath> agni-prave§e
suhrdas te ko hetub? 18 paravatl khalu tatrabhavati, na ca
saipnihita;guru:jana 19 di?ty 5 dharma-patnl-samagamena
putra-mukhasarpdar§anena c> iyu$man vardhate zo tat kim
ayam aryepa sajekhah purusah Kusumapuram prasthapitah?
zi tatrabhavan Kapvah gagvate brahmapi vartate, iyaip ca vah
sakhl tasy> atmaj» eti katham etat? zz mam> api Kapva-sutam
anusmjtya mfgayam prati nir_utsukam cetah Z3 api
Candragupta-do?a atikranta:parthiva-gupan smarayanti
prakrtlh? Z4 etam a:sambhavyaip brahmapasya pratijfiam
Srutva sa_sacivo raja prahr§$aynana vismay»-anvitah sa_bahuma-
nam tasmai VispuSarmape kum 5 ran samarpitavan

Exercise 10a 1 pagya Madhavasy* avastham z mahati visade
vartate te sakhkjanah 3 idani tat pratyutpannaimati~tvam

stripam 4 aho dar§anlyany ak?arapi 5 muhurtam upaviSata
6 bhoh §re?thin Candanadasa, evam apathya-kari§u tlkspa;daijdo
r 3 ja 7 anubhavatu raj>apathya-kari~tvasya phaiam 8
pratyasannah kila mjgaya-viharl parthivo Duhsantah 9 gaccha-
tam bhavantau 10 bhos tapasvin, cintayann api na khalu svl-
karanam atrabhavatyah smarami 11 sakhe Madhavya,
dfdha;pratijfio bhava 12 aho nir_daya~ta durratmanam pau-
rapam— aho Ramasya rajnah k$ipra:kari~ta 13 bhagavan
Manmatha, kutas te kusum>;ayudhasya satas taik$ijyam etat?
14 nanu bhavatyah pap-aficalair vatsau vljayadhvam 15
bhagn>iotsahah kfto >smi mrgaya->pavadina Madhavyena 16
aho bata, kldr§im vayo->vastham apanno >smi 17 adya
$i§t>anadhyayanam iti khelatarp batunam ayam kalakalah 18
svairaip svairam gacchantu bhavatyah 19 paritrayatam
suhrdam Maharajah zo tatrabhavatah kulapater asamnidhyad
raksamsl nas tapo-vighnam utpadayanti zr bhadra, anaya mu-
draya mudray> amarn zz §atru-prayuktanam ca tlk§na:rasa-
dayinam pratividhanam praty apramadinah pariksitaibhaktayah
k§itipati-pratyasanna niyuktah purusah 23 samprati
Madayantika-sambandhena Nandan>-opagrahat pratyastai§an-
kah khalu vayam 24 bhavinam enarp cakravartinam avagac-
chatu bhavan 25 maya tSvat suhrttamasya Candanadasasya
gfhe grha-janam nik§ipya nagaran nirgacchata nyayyam anu$thi-
tam 2 6 devi, saipstabhy> atmanam anurudhyasva bhagavato
Vasi§jhasy> SdeSam iti vijfiapayami

275

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is

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§ 1
3.

1

Exercise 11 a 1 katham, iyam sa Kapva-duhita ^akuntala? z
vatse, yad aham the tad astu te 3 he dhurta, lekho nlyate, na ca
jfiayate *kasy>?’ eti? 4 priye Malati, iyam vlk$yase 5 viSramy-
atam parijanena 6 Mandairike, yad atra vastuny esa te vallabhah
kathayati, api tatha tat? 7 deven> aivam ni$iddhe >pi Madh>-ut-
save, cutakalika-bhangam arabhase? 8 parirak?yantam asya
prapah 9 bho rajan, kim idam jo$am asyate? xo tad anu$thl-
yatam atmano >bhiprayah 11 kim o atisr$tah ParvateSvara-
bhratre Vairodhakaya purva:prastiSruto rajy>-ardhah 12
katham, ‘$>akuntal»’ ety asya matur akhya? 13 kah sa maharpu-
ru?o yen> aitan manusamatra-du^karam mahat karm> anu$thi-
tam? 14 Priyarpvadaka, jfiayatam ‘ka vela vartata?’ iti 15 arya
Vaihinare, dlyatam abhyam vaitSlikabhyam suvarna§ata : sahas-
ram 1 6 Vr§ala kim ayam asthana eva mahan arth>-otsargah
kriyate? 17 bhoh $re$jhin, api praclyante samvyavaharapam lab-
hah? 18 bhagavati Vasumdhare, llaghyam duhitaram avek$asva
Janaktm 19 katham , nivaryamano >pi sthita eva? zo bhaga-
van Valmlke, upanlyetam imau S'lta-garbha-sambhavau

276

Ramatbhadrasya Ku£a;Lavau 2.1 yadfSo >yam tadfSau tSv api
22 visRfaS ca Vamadev>-anumantrito medhyo >§vah. upakalpitaS
ca yatha_Jastraip tasya rak§itarah. te$ 3 m adhi$thata Lak$map>-at-
majaS Candraketur avaptaidivy>? astra- saippradayaS

catunanga:sadhan>anvito >nuprahitah 23 hanta, hanta,
sarvathi rpSarpso >smi, ya§ cirasya df${ 5 n priyarsuhrdab priyan
d 5 ran na snigdhaip paSyami 24 atha tasmSd arapyat parityajya
nivjtte Lak?mape Sltayab kup vxttam? iti kacid asti pravjttih?
25 asti tavad ekada prasangatah kathita eva maya M 5 dhav>ia-
bhidhanah kumaro, yas tvam iva mamaklnasya manaso dvitlyaip
nibandhanam

Exercise 12a 1 bhadra, bhadra, na prave§favyam 2 bhavatu,
Sfpomi tavad asam viSrambha-kathitani 3 tu$plip bhava, yavad
akarpayami 4 amatya, tatha >pi prarabdham azparityajyam eva
5 tad atra Sala-pracchaye muhurtam asana-parigraharp karotu
tatah 6 samupadiSa tam uddeSam yatr> Sste sa pipdapatl

7 hfdaya sthirFbhava. kim api te ka$fataram akarpanlyam

8 kim anyad bravltu? 9 iyaip c> OrvaSi yavad_ 5 yus tava sahad-
harmacaripl bhavatu 10 tad ySvac Chriparvatam upaniya
lavaSo lavaSa enaip nilqtya duhkhaimaraparp karomi 11 asti
nab sucarita-Sravapa-lobhkd anyad api pra$Javyam 12 tat kim
ity udasate bharatah? 13 tatra o aivam anu§theyarp yatha
vadami 14 nanu bhavatlbhyam eva Sakuntala sthirlkartavya
15 gjrhlta^rha-saram enaip sa_putra;kalatraqi saqiyamya raksa
tavad yavan maya Vj$alaya kathyate 1 6 saippraty Agasty>-a$ra-
masya panthanaip bruhi 17 vinlta.;ve$a-prave$yani tapo-vanani
18 maru-sthalyarp yatha vf§pb, k$udh»arte bhojanaip tatha 19
udghatinl bhumir iti raSmi-saipyamanad rathasya mandibhuto
vegah 20 cakravartinarp putram Spnuhi 21 tat kiyantam
kalam asmabhir evaip saipbhjtaibalair api Satru-vyasanam
avek?amapair udasitavyam? 22 yad» aiv> anguriyaka-darSanad
anusmjtaip devena ‘satyam udha:pQrva rahasi maya tatrabhavatl
Sakuntala mohat pratyadi$t»’ ed, tad» aiva paScattapam upagato
devah 23 maha;dhana~tv 5 d bahuipatni~ken> anena bhavi-
tavyam 24 amatya, idf$asy> abharapa-viSesasya vi£e$atah
kumarepa sva:g 5 trad avatarya prasadlkrtasya kim ayaip parity 5 ga-
bhumih? 25 yavac ca saipbandhino na parapatanti, tSvad vatsaya
Malatya nagara-devata-gjham avighna:mangalaya gantavyam

Exercise 13a 1 dehi me prativacanam 2 tvaya saha Gau-
taml gami?yati 3 katham, §unya iv> ami prade$ 5 h 4 e$a tam
i?uip saipdadhe 5 yadi rahasyaip, tada ti$lhatu— yadi na ra-
hasyaip, tarhi kathyatam 6 aham apy amum vrttantarp bhaga-
vatyai Lopamudrayai nivedayami 7 sa khalu murkhas taip

yu$mabhir atisjsjam prabhutam artha-ralim avapya, mahata
vyayen> opabhoktum arabdhavan 8 disfya su:prabhatam adya,
yad ayam devo d?$tah 9 kim cid akhyatuikama >smi 10 upalap-
sye tavad enam 11 bhadra Siddharthaka, kamam a:paryaptam
idam asya priyasya, tatha >pi grhyatam 1 2 ayam asau raj>-ajfiaya
r 5 j>-apathya-k 5 ri kayasthalj Saka{adasah Sulam aropayitum nlyate
13 jfiasyathah khalv etat 14 puny>:aSrama-dar§anen> atmanam
pununahe tavat 15 bhadre, na tat pariharyam, yato vivak$itam
an:uktam anutapam janayati 16 n> ayam avasaro mama
Satakratum dra$tum 17 sakhe, na tavad enam paSyasi, yena tvam
evamvadl 18 aye, etas tapasvi-kanyakah sva:pramap>anurupaih
secana-ghatair b 5 la:padapebhyah payo datum ita ev> abhivartante
19 na cen muni-kumarako >yam, tat ko >sya vyapadeSah? 20
matimamS Capakyas tucche prayojane kim iti Candraguptam
kopayi§yati? na ca krtavedi Candragupta etavata gauravam ul-
langhayi$yati 21 tena hi vijfiSpyataip mad-vacanad upadhyayah
Somaratah— ‘amun aSrama-vasinah Srautena vidhina satkjtya
svayam eva praveSayitum arhas>’ iti 22 smartavyam tu sau-
janyam asya nppater, yad aparadhinor apy an.-aparaddhayor iva
nau krtaiprasadam ce§titavan 23 he vyasana-sabrahmacarin,
yadi na guhyam matibharikam va, tatah Srotum icchami te
prapa-parityaga-karapam 24 arya Vaihinare, ‘adya prabhfty
an:aditya Capakyaip Candraguptah svayam eva raja-karyapi kar-
i§yat>’ iti grhit>iarthah kriyantam prakjtayah 25 vayam apy
airama-badha yatha na bhavati, tatha prayati§yamahe 2 6 kim
idanup Candraguptah sva:rijya-karya:dhuram anyatra mantripy
atmani va samasajya svayam pratividhatum a:samarthah? 27
yat satyam, kavya-vi§e$a-vedinyaqt parisadi prayufijanasya mam>
api su:mahan parito§ah pradur~bhavati 28 ‘Candragupta-
Sariram abhidrogdhum anena vyaparita Daruvarm>iadaya’ iti na-
gare prakhyapya £akatadasah §ulam aropitah 29 sa khalu
kasmirpS cid api jlvati Nand>-anvay>-avayave Vr^alasya sacivyaip
grahayitum na Sakyate 30 idam atra ramapiyakam, yad
amatya:Bhurivasu,“Devaratayo§ cirat purpo >yam itaretar>-
apatya-sambandh>:amrta-manorathah

277

Exercise 14a z Priyamvadaka, jfiayatam ko >smad-dar$an>-
arthl dvari ti$thati 2 kva nu khalu gata syat? 3 asit tadrSo
munir asminn aSrame 4 ayu$man, Sruyataqi yadartham asmi
Haripa tvat-saka$am pre?itah 5 evam ukto >py aham enam
prabodhayaqi punah punah 6 cirat prabhrty aryah parityakt>i-
ocita; Sarlra- samskara iti pldyate me hjdayam 7 vismaya;-
harsa;mula§ ca kolahalo lokasy> odajihlta 8 tad ucyatam
patravargah ‘svesu svesu pafhe§v asammudhair bhavitavyam’ iti
9 sakhe, cintaya tavat ken> apadeSena punar aSrama-padam

exercises: transcription

gacchamah 10 api nama duriatmanaS Capakyac Candragupto
bhidyeta u ayam asau mama jyayan Sryah Ku§o nama
Bharat>-a6ramiit pratinivjttah 12 surata-kheda-prasuptayos tu
tayob svapne bisa-gupa-nigaditaipado jara{hah ka$ cij jalapadah
pratyadfSyata. praty a budhyetaip c> obhau 13 tad anvi$yat 5 ip
yadi k 5 cid apanna;sattva tasya bharyS syat 14 Sryaputra, n>
ayaqx viSrambhakathaya avasaras, tado laghutaram ev> abhidhi-
yase 15 katham idjiena saha vatsasya Candraketor
dvandasampraharam anujanlyam? 16 ity avadhary> apasar-
pap>-abhil 5 sipy aham abhavam 17 kasmin prayojane maim
ayam prapidhife prahita iti prabhuta~tvat prayojananaqi na khalv
avadharaySmi 18 yadi ka§ cid asty upayah pati-droha-
pratikriyayai, dar§ay> amum— matir hi te paflyasi 19 anay» aiva
ca kathaya taya saha tasminn eva prasade tath» aiva prati§iddh>:
a§e§a: parij ana-pra ve§a divasam atyavihayam 20 tad upayaS
cintyataqi yatha saphalaiprarthano bhaveyam 21 Srutva c> aitat
tam eva matta:hastinam udast>iadhorapo raja-putro >dhiruhya
ramhas» ottamena rajabhavanam abhyavartata 22 upalab-
dhavSn asmi prapidhibhyo yatha tasya mleccha-r 5 ja-balasya
madhyat pradhanatamah pafica rajanah paraya suhjt'taya
Rak$asam anuvartanta id 23 yadi punar iyaip kirpvadanti
maharajaip prati syandeta, tat ka${aip syat 24 ity avadhary> an-
ve$pim adaram akaravam. anve§amapaS ca yatha yatha n>
apaSyaqi tam, tatha tatha subrtsneha-katarepa manasa tat tad
aSobhanam aiankamanas taru-gahanani candana-vlthika lata-
mapdapSn sarah-kulani ca vlk$amapo nipupam itas tato
datta;dy§tih su:ciraip vyacaram 25 ekasmiipS ca pradeSe jhafiti
van>-anilen> opanitarp nirbhara:vikasite >pi kinane >bhibhut>;-
anyarkusuma-parimalam visarpantam ati:surabhi~taya >nulim-
pantam iva tarpayantam iva pGrayantam iva ghrap>-endriyam,
ahamahamikayS madhukara-kulair anubadhyamanam
an:aghrata:pQrvam a:manu§a-lok> r ocitam kusuma-gandham ab-
hyajighram

Exercise 15 evatp:v 5 dini deva:r$au par§ve pitur adhomukhi |
llla-kamala-pattrapi gapaySm asa Parvatl H84 ]|
evam Hi || devarrsau (: Angirasi) evamw&dini sati PSrvati pHuh p~
arsve adhomukhi sad | lajjay» eti §e$ab | It la-kamala-pattriini
ganaydmasa (: samcakhyau) | lajja-vaSat kamala-dala-gapana:vya-
jena har$arp jugop> ety arthalj | anen> avahitth»; akhyah saipcari
bhava uktah | tad uktam—

‘avahittha tu lajj»;ader har?>iady-akara-gopanam’ iti ||

Sailah saqapurpa;kamo >pi Mena-mukham udaik$ata|
prayepa gfhiplinetrah kanya->rthe$u ku{umbinah ||8$||

Saila iti || Sailah (: HimavSn) santparnaikimo >pi\ datum
kyta;ni£cayo >p> ity arthah | Mena-mukham udaiksata | ucit>:
ottara-jij&asay» eti bhavah | tatha hi | priyena kufumbinab (: gyha-
sthah) kanya->rthe$u (: kanya-prayoj ane§u ) gfhiny eva netram
(: k3ryajMna-karaoaqi) yesaqi te tath» oktah J kalatra:pradhanai
vyttaya ity arthah ||

279

mene Mena >pi tat sarvam patyuh karyam abhlpsitam |
bhavanty avyabhicariiiyo bhartur i$te pati;vrat§h |[86||

mena iti || Mena >pi patyuh {: Himalayasya) tat sarvam
abhlpsitam karyam mene (:aftgi~cakara) |tatha hi path eva
vratam yasam tah bhartur i#e (: abhipsite) (na vidyate vyab-
hicaro yasam tab:) avyabhicirinyo bhavanti | bhartr-citt»-ab-
hipraya-jfia bhavant> iti bhavah ||

‘idam atr> ottaram nyayyam’ iti buddhyi vimySya sah |
adade vacasam ante mahgah-alaipkytaip sutam H87H

idam iti || sab (: Himavan) vacasam ante (: munivaky>-avasane)
atra (: muni-vakye) idam (: uttara:§loke vak?yamaparp dSnam
eva) nyayyam (: nyayad an:apetam) uttaram iti buddhyi (: cit-
tena) vimj-sya (: vicintya) (mahgalaqi yatha tatha >larpkrtaip :)
mangah-alamkftam sutam adade (: hastabhyam jagraha) ||

‘ehi, Vi§vatmane, vatse, bhik§a >si parikalpita |

arthino munayah— praptam gyhamedhi-phalam maya’ ||88||

eh> iti || he vatse (: putri) ehi (: agaccha) | tvam Visvatmane
(: Sivaya) bhikfa parikalpita >si (: niScita >si) |

‘ratn>;adi stambaiparyantam sarvam bhik§a tapasvinah’
iti vacanad iti bhavah | arthinah (: yacitarah) munayah | maya
gfhamedhinab (: grhasthasya) phalam priptam | iha paratra ca
taraka~tvat patre kanyadanam garhasthyasya phalam ity arthah ||

etavad uktva tanayam r$In aha mahldharah |

‘iyam namati vah sarvaips Trilocana-vadhur’ iti H89H

etivad iti || mahidharab (: Himavan) tanayam etavat (: purv>
:oktam) uktva xfm aha | kim iti? | ‘ iyam Trilocana-vadhuh
(: Tryambaka-patnl) vah sarvan namati’ iti | Trilocana-vadhQr’ iti
siddha'vad abhidhanen> ‘a:vipratipannam danam’ iti sucayati ||

ipsit>:artha-kriy»-odaraip te >bhinandya girer vacah
aSirbhir edhayam asuh purah;pakabhir Ambikam ||9o||

Ipsit>:arth> eti || te (: munayah) Ipsit>:artha-kriyaya (: i$t>:artha-
karanena) udaram (: mahat) | ‘udaro datr;mahatoh’ ity Amarab |

Sanskrit-English
exercises: transcription

girelp (: Himavatab) vacalp (: vacanam) abhinandya (: ‘sadhv’ iti
saipstutya) | Ambikdm (: Ambam) | ‘pacyata’ iti pakafp (: phalam) |
purafpipdkdbhifp (: purask|ta;phal5bhib) dslrbhilp (: a^Irvadaib)
edhaydm Ssufp (: sapivardhayam 5suh) ||

tSm prapam>-5dara-srastaij5mbunada:vatapisakam |
ankam aropayam asa lajjamanam Arundhatl ||^i||

tdm iti || prandm>-ddarena {: namaskar>-asaktya) sraste jambU-
tiade (: suvarpa^vikare) vatamsake (: kanaka-kupdale) yasyas tapa
lajjamandm tdm (: Ambikam) Arundhatl ankam dropaydm asa \
‘rahah po >nyatarasyam’ iti pakarah ||

tan-raataraqi c> aSru^mukhirp duhiCf-sneha-viklavam |
varasy> an:anya:purvasya vi;Sokam akarod gupaih H 92 H

tad iti || duhitp-snekena (: putrika-prempa) viklavdm (: ‘viyoksyata’
iti bhltam) | ata ev> (aSrupi mukbe yasyas tam :) asrumukhtm (ta-
syah (: Ambikayah) mataram :) tan-mdtaram (: Men5m) ca | (anya
purvaqi yasy> asti so :) >nyaipQrvah | ‘sarvanamno vjtti-vi$aye
pupivad-bhavah’ iti purva:padasya pmpvad-bhavah | (‘sa na bha-
vat>’ ity an:anya-purvas, tasya:) an:anydipdrvasya | sSpatnya-
duhkham a:kurvata ity arthalj | varasya (: vodhuh) gurpaUp
(: mjtyuipjaya~tv>;adibhib) vi-Jokdm (: nir_dubkham) akarot ||

vaivahikup tithixp pf?t5s tatk§apam Hara-bandhuna |
te tryahad urdhvam akhyaya ceru§ clray>arigrahah H 93 H

vaivdhiklm iti || draiparigrahdh (: valkala ; matra:vasanah) te
(: tapasvinah) tatk$anam (: tasminn eva ksape) Hara-bandhuna
(: Himavata) vaivdhiklm (: vivaha-yogyam) tithim prtfdfp (: ‘k»?’
ety anuyuktah) santah | trayapaxn ahnarp samaharas tryiahah |
‘taddhit>iarth>;ottarapada;samahare ca’ iti samasah ‘raj>;-
ahah;sakbibhyas {ac’ iti facipratyayah | dvigu'tvad ekavacanam |
‘ratr>;ahn>;ahah pupisi’ iti punplihga~ta | (tasraat :) tryiahdt
urdhvam (: upari) dkhydya (: ‘caturthe >hani vivahah’ ity uktva)
ceruh (: calitah) ||

te Himalayam amantrya punah prapya ca Sulinam |
siddham c> asmai nivedy> arthapa tad-visr§{ah kham
udyayuh H94II

ta iti || te (: munayah) Himalayam dmantrya (: ‘sadhu, yama’ ity
Sprcchya) punah Siilinam (: Haraxp) sapaketa-sthana-stham prd
pya ca \ siddham (: ni§pannam) artham (: prayojanam) asmai
nivedya (: jfiapayitva) ca tad-visffidlp (: tena (: Gulina) visr${ah)
kham (: akaiapa) prati udyayuh (: utpetuh) | atra sapak§ipt>

:arth>abhidhanat ‘samk$epo’nama guna uktah | tad uktam—
‘samk$ipt>:arth>-abhidhanarn yat, samksepah pariklrtitah’ iti ||

bhagavan PaSupatis tryaha^matra:vilambam api sodhum na
§a§aka tad-autsukyad ity aha—

PaSupatir api tany ahani krcchrad
agamayad adri-suta-samagam>-6tkah |
kam aparam avaSam na viprakuryur
vibhum api tam yad ami sprSanti bhavah? U95U

Pasupatir iti || (utkam mano yasya sah :) utkah | ‘utka
unmanah’ iti nipatah | adri-suta-samagam>otkah (: Parvatl-par-
ipay>-6tsukah) Pasupatir api t&ni | trlp> iti §e?ah | ahani krcchrad
agamayat (: ayapayat) | kavir aha-aml bhavah (: autsuky>;adayah
saxpcarinah) avasam (: indriya-paratantram) aparam (: prthag:
janam) kam na viprakuryuh (: na vikarain nayeyuh) yat (: yas-
mat) vibhum (: samartham) | jit>iendriyam iti yavat | tam
(: Smaraharam) api spxsanti | vikurvant> ity arthafr | atra vibhu-
vikara-samarthanad arthad itara:jana-vikarah kaimutika.-nyayad
apatat> ity arth>apatdr alamkarah | tatha ca sutram — ‘da^dapu-
pikaya >rth>-antar>-apatanam arth>-apattih’ iti | arthantaranyasa iti
ke cit, tad upeksaijuyam | yuktis tu vistarabhayan n> ocyate |
pu§pitagra vrttam—

‘a:yuji na-yuga;repha~to yak 5 ro
yuji ca na;jau ja;ra;gai ca pu$pit2gra’
iti lak$aoat ||

281

Sanskrit-English
exercises: transcription

Sanskrit-English exercises: key

282

Exercise 2b 1 1 am going, z We aren’t going [/Let us not go]
in here. 3 He writes yet again. 4 Where are you Ipl.J living
now? 5 Do you so wish? 6 But where are they standing?
7 What, is he coming this way? 8 What are the two of them
bringing here? 9 1 see and write. 10 He seems to be wandering
[/to be confused], n The two of you dance and sing, iz
They both remember and grieve. 13 ‘We are coming in here,’
the two of them say. 14 How (is it that) he is not coming even
now. 15 I rejoice that I am winning. 16 We grieve that they
are not [living:] alive.

Exercise 3a 1 The pupils are bringing the teacher. 2 Do you
want horses [/the horses]? 3 I see the sun and moon. 4 Who
does not want happiness? 5 The food is scant. 6 The man
takes the horses to the water. 7 ‘Who are you?’ the two of
them ask me. 8 To what mountain is the scholar going?
9 The two of them enter the forest because anger does not dwell
there [here of direct speech often becomes there of indirect]. 10
We do not understand swift speech. 11 Teacher, that elephant
is like a mountain. 12 But whom shall I ask? 13 Are you
pupils? 14 Men and children are entering the water. 15 ‘That
fruit is now pleasant’ they say astonished. 16 What, children
here too? 17 Even sorrows bring reward. 18 ‘Children, what
pleasure do you see in this?’ the teacher says to the pupils.

Exercise 4a 1 He quits the house with his sons. 2 Here is a
garden: let us go in. 3 Both teacher and pupils made an
extraordinary effort. 4 This man gave up life because his friend
was dear [or possibly because my friend was dear (to him)].
5 Who (is) this (who) is coming to the house? 6 Why do you
not rejoice at the pleasant sight? 7 (I have) seen and understood.

8 In curiosity as to what these [/the] men want here [/there], he
goes into the house. 9 The city is far, and we are wandering ex-
hausted. 10 Do you want this or not? n ‘Have done with
words, the opportunity is gone’ the two of them say in despair
(/dejectedly). 1 z Sons, this is the very opportunity. 1 3 See, we
have come to the city. 14 The two friends have forgotten
(their) first despair. 15 Though asked, ‘O papdit, where are
you taking the horse?’ he speaks not a word. 16 What point in
effort? His Majesty is not looking at you.

Exercise 5a 1 Here we (both) are. z [After hearing:] They
have heard my answer— what else do they want? 3 You do not
[/do you not] in fact have a book. [/?] 4 Friend, you are like my
(own) heart. 5 Let the two of us sit for a while in this garden.
6 They are all wandering in the fields. 7 Your Majesty, a [cer-
tain] brahmin has come from another city. 8 What means (can)
you see for seeing my sons? 9 When we see his angei; we feel
alarm in our heart (/our heart feels alarm). 10 Here stands His
Highness, n Why, after sitting for just a moment I have seen
my two friends once more. 1 z There is no other road. 1 3 The
sight of Rama now actually [is for sorrow:] causes sorrow to his
friends. 14 Your Majesty has heard this from others too. 15
He goes into the house and asks everyone ‘Where, where is the
villain now?’ [The repetition of kva is for emphasis .] 16 In the
country of the blind it is the one-eyed man who has power. 17
Kalahamsaka, who drew this picture of M 5 dhava?

Exercise 6a 1 Sopottara, what is (your) purpose in coming?
z Alas, two disasters have befallen (me). 3 Great king, [is there
welfare of:] is it well with Prince Lak?mapa? 4 But where is
this news from? 5 Truly I am exactly so. 6 Minister, the news
from Kusumapura is extensive. 7 You are accepted as a son by
the noble ladies [in fact an honorific plural = the Queen]. 8 In
which place is Marlca’s hermitage? 9 Mother, who are you?
Why did you restrain me? 10 Surely this is an occasion for re-
gret. 11 This is the same (woman), iz To both of you alike
Indra’s servant Duh$anta makes obeisance. 13 Servitude is in-
deed harsh. 14 Has this cancellation [made] by me of the Full
Moon festival not indeed reached Vy$ala’s [path of hearing:] ears?
15 What have you (to do) with this worry? 16 MSdhavya, do
you feel curiosity [with regard to seeing:] to see Sakuntala?
17 [The characters written by a scholar, though written with
care, are necessarily illegible:] However painstakingly a scholar
writes, he is bound to be illegible.

Sanskrit-Engllsh exercises: key

284

Exercise 7a i Ah, here is Her Majesty, z Someone [/some-
thing] has woken me. 3 Here is Minister Rak$asa’s house.
4 Oh, we have been deprived of a loving friend. 5 (That was)
well thought of by Her Reverence. 6 Sfr is (your) head-ache
bearable? 7 Their excessive kindness embarrasses me.
8 Therefore let us [resort to:] shelter in this fig-tree’s shade.
[Note that this more conveniently qualifies tree in English , shade
in Sanskrit .] 9 We have been distressed at not seeing Your
Honour for a long time. 10 Welcome to her [/Your] Majesty.
11 Do not fear discourtesy from us. iz Minister, he prepared
a medicine mixed with a magic powder for Candragupta.
13 Ah, my body is (as) happy as if [from the touch of UrvaSfs
limbs:] it had been touched by UrvaSi. 14 Noble lady, [is there
calamity of:] has some calamity happened to Queen Sita?

1 5 I will just offer the priests this grass for strewing on the altar.

1 6 Avalokita has told (me) that Mkdhava is gone to the park of
(the) Love (temple). 17 Alas, the effort of both alike (was) mis-
placed. 18 This portion of the story has not been heard before
by us or (anyone) else. 19 We for our part will just ask you
[two ladies] something concerning your friend, zo Minister,
here is an ornament which His Highness has removed from his
own person and sent (you).

Exercise 8a 1 Ah, we [two] have achieved our object, z A
deed worthy of Rama has been done. 3 There is in the Deccan
a city called Padmapura. 4 Friend, let us stand over here [with
our bodies] hidden by the pillar. 5 Pleasant indeed is the scene
at the end of the day in the king’s palace. 6 Why are you going
out of the camp [with seal unreceived:] without getting a pass?
7 Dear child, do not fear [offence by (your)self:] that you have
offended. 8 Ho there, for what purpose does this horse wan-
der around with a retinue? 9 But whom (am) I (to) understand
this lady (to be)? 10 Your Highness, this matter is not terribly
difficult to understand. 11 But Minister Rak$asa’s hostility is
fixed on CSpakya, not on Candragupta. iz So I personally
send (you) herewith [esa] brahmins of proven worth. [Or
svayam may be taken with parikata: whose worth has been ex-
amined by myself.] 13 Alas, I am become a man of foul deeds,
a monster 14 What, though he has committed great offence,
have the two blessed (goddesses) taken pity on Rama? 1 5 1 will
just (go and) see the king, now that his evening prayers are
over 1 6 He at that very time, hearing of such a cruel turn
of fortune for Queen Sita, became an anchorite. 17 I perceive
that DSruvarman’s efforts (were) fruitless or had an unwished-
for fruit. 18 Beautiful one, the day is not completely over.

19 From meeting Sakuntala, my eagerness to go (back) to the
city has slackened.

285

Exercise 9a i What did you say? 2 Now we are going back.

3 He salutes [having made an anjali:] with joined hands.

4 I greet you all. 5 Friend Piujdarlka, this is [not proper for:]
wrong of you. 6 I will just inform my teacher that the time of
sacrifice is at hand. 7 Did you too perhaps forget like me?
8 We are overwhelmed with astonishment. 9 Have (you) dis-
covered a weakness of the enemy, sir? 10 Why then are you
afraid? 11 I shall now act as ordered. 12 Reverend sir, there
is indeed no matter beyond the scope of the wise. 13 Sakuntala
threatens (/scolds) her friend with (a shaking of) her finger.
14 Bravo, friend Bhurivasu, bravo! 15 What did he say on
waking? 16 Now [that good lady is the wife of a royal seer
called what?:] what is the name of the royal seer whose wife
that lady is? 17 Now what (was) your friend’s motive, good
fellow, in entering the fire [i.e. committing suicide]? 18 The
lady is of course under another’s control, and her guardian is not
present. 19 Congratulations to you, sire, on your (re)union with
your lawful wife and on beholding the face of your son. 20
Then why did Your Honour despatch this man to Kusumapura
with a letter? 21 How is it that His Honour Kagva lives in per-
petual chastity and (yet) this friend of yours is his daughter?
[Note: The answer is that she is an adopted child.] 22 For my
part too, when I remember Kapva’s daughter, my heart is with-
out eagerness for the chase. 23 Do Candragupta’s faults cause
his subjects to remember the merits of bygone rulers? 24
Hearing this incredible promise by the brahmin, the king in
company with his ministers, with delighted mind (and) full of as-
tonishment, respectfully handed his royal sons over to that
(same) Vi?pu$arman.

Exercise 10a 1 See Madhava’s condition. 2 Your friends are
in great distress. 3 This is women’s well-known [tat] readiness
of wit. 4 What attractive [characters:] handwriting! 5 Sit
down Ipl.] for a minute. 6 Oh merchant Candanadasa, you see
how [evam] severe in punishment towards traitors is the king.
7 Let him [experience:] reap the reward of being a traitor to the
king. 8 It seems that King Duh$anta is at hand, roaming in the
hunt. 9 Go (both of) you. 10 Oh ascetic! Even when I think
it over^ I certainly do not remember marrying this lady.
11 Madhavya my friend, be firm in your assertions. 12 How
pitiless (were) the vile citizens! How precipitate King Rama!
13 Blessed god of Love, from where do you, who are armed with

Sanskrit-English exercises: key

Sanskrit-English exercises: key

286

flowers, get this sharpness? 14 Well (all of), you [f.] fan the
two dear children with the borders of your robes. 15 In
decrying hunting MSdhavya has made me [of shattered enthusi-
asm:] lose my enthusiasm. 16 Oh alas! to what a state of (old)
age am I come! 17 This noise is (the sound) of young brahmins
playing because today is a holiday in honour of learned (guests).
18 Go very gently, ladies. 19 Save (your) friend, sire. 20 Because
the revered lord of our house is not present, devils are causing hin-
drance to our austerities. 21 Seal it, my dear fellow, with this
ring. 22 Men of proven loyalty have been appointed about the
king, vigilant in countermeasures against poisoners engaged by the
enemy. 23 Now that Nandana is won over by Madayantika’s
union, we have indeed cast aside our cares. 24 [You must un-
derstand him to be a future emperor:] know that in time to come
he will be emperor. 25 Well, I did right to deposit my family in
the house of my close friend Candanadasa [and retire:] before re-
tiring from the city. 2 6 Your Majesty \f.\, I beg you to compose
yourself and comply with the revered Vasi${ha’s command.

Exercise 11a 1 What, is this Kagva’s daughter Sakuntala?
2 Dear child, may you have what I desire (for you). 3 You
rogue. You are taking a letter and you don’t know for whom?
4 Dear Malatl, see you are spied [or See, I am searching you
out]. 5 Let the servants take a rest. 6 Mandarika, what your
sweetheart here says on this matter— is it so? 7 Though the
Spring Festival has been thus cancelled by His Majesty, do you
begin plucking the mango buds? 8 Spare his life. 9 Ho sire!
Why do you remain silent like this? 10 Do, then, [your own in-
clination:] as you will. 11 Moreover (he) bestowed on
ParvateSvara’s brother Vairodhaka the half of the kingdom pre-
viously promised (to ParvateSvara). 12 What, is his mother’s
name ‘Sakuntala’ ? 13 Who is the great man who has per-
formed this great deed, difficult for a mere mortal? 14
Priyaipvadaka, find out what time it is. 15 Noble Vaihinari,
give these two bards a hundred thousand gold pieces. 1 6
Vf?ala, why are you quite inappropriately making this vast ex-
penditure? 17 Ho merchant! Are the profits of your transac-
tions accumulating? 18 Blessed Vasuqidhara, watch over your
virtuous daughter Janakl. 19 What, does he just stay, though
driven off? 20 Reverend Valmlki, bring these two offspring of
Slta’s womb, Kula and Lava, to dear Rkma [or (who are) dear
Rama’s (sons)]. 21 Just as he is, so also are the two of them.
22 And a sacrificial horse blessed by Vamadeva has been re-
leased, and (men) assigned in conformity with the law-books to
guard it. At their head, Laksmaga’s son Candraketu, who has

acquired the tradition of the celestial missiles, has been despatched,
attended by a [four-limbed:] full army. Z3 Alas, alas, I am a total
monster not to look affectionately on the dear wife of a dear
friend, seen after (so) long. 14 Is there any news as to [id] what
then happened to (/became of) Slt 5 when Lak$ma$a had returned
from that forest after abandoning (her there)? 15 There is then
a young man called MSdhava [actually spoken of by me:] whom
I did mention once in passing, someone who is another bond
such as you (yourself are) to my heart. [The unusual possessive
adjective mimakina avoids the ugly sound of mama manaso or
man-manaso. The speaker is a Buddhist nun who ought to shun
all ties of affection.]

287

Exercise 12a r My good fellow, my good fellow, you mustn’t
come in. z Right— I’ll just listen to the confidential talk of these
(girls). 3 Be quiet while I listen. 4 Even so, minister, (you)
should certainly not give up the enterprise [or one should not
give up something one has undertaken]. 5 So [let father make
an occupying of a seat:] take a seat, father for a while in the
shade of this sal tree, [atra for asmin; cf. also note on Exercise 8a,
no. 8] 6 Show (me) the place where that mendicant stays. 7 Be
firm, my heart. You have something more grievous to listen to.
8 What else is she [/he] to say ? 9 And let Urva$T here be your
[throughout life:] lifelong lawful spouse. 10 So I’ll just take her
to Srlparvata, shred her piece by piece and make her have a
painful death, n In our greed to hear of good deeds, we have
(something) else to ask as well, iz So why do the players sit
idle? 13 And there you must do as I tell you. 14 It is rather
you two (girls) who must sustain $akuntala. 1 5 Seize his house-
hold property, arrest him and his son and wife, and hold him
while I tell V{$ala. 16 Now tell the way to Agastya’s hermitage.
17 One should enter ascetic groves in modest attire. 18 Like
rain on desert land is food to one oppressed by hunger. [This is
a line of verse— hence the unusual position of tatha.] 19 From
(my) tightening the reins because the ground was bumpy, the
speed of the chariot has slackened, zo May you get a son (to
be) Emperor, zi How long, then, must we sit idle like this,
though with our forces assembled, watching for a weakness in
the enemy? zz As soon as His Majesty, from seeing the ring, re-
membered that he really had previously married in secret the
Lady Sakuntala (and) from delusion rejected her, His Majesty be-
came remorseful. Z3 Since he has great wealth, he must have
many wives. Z4 Minister, is this man a suitable recipient for
such a special decoration, particularly one that His Highness re-
moved from his own person and bestowed (upon you)? Z5 And

Sanskrit-English exercises: key

before the (bridegroom’s) relatives arrive, dear Malatl must go to
the city temple (to make an offering) for unhindered good luck.

Exercise 13a i Give me an answer, a GautamI will go with
you. 3 Why, those places seem deserted! 4 See, I am aiming
that arrow. 5 If (it is) a secret, let it be— if it is not a secret, then
tell (me). 6 And I for my part will announce that news to the
reverend Lopamudra. 7 That fool, of course, on obtaining that
large pile of money that you lavished (on him), began to spend it
with great extravagance. 8 Thank heaven, it has dawned fair
today, in that I see His Majesty here. 9 I [/;] want to tell (you)
something. 10 I will just rebuke him. 11 Good Siddharthaka,
admittedly this is (an) inadequate (reward) for this service, but
take it! 12 There is that letter-writer Saka^adasa, a traitor to the
king, being taken by the king’s order to be impaled. 13 You
[du.] will certainly learn this. 14 Let us just purify ourselves
by seeing a holy hermitage. 15 Dear (young) lady, do not omit
it— since what is meant but unsaid causes remorse. 16 This is
not the right moment for me to see Indra. 17 Well, friend, you
[are not a seer of:] have not seen her, for you to talk in that way.
18 Oh! here are ascetics’ girls making this way, to [give water
to:] water the young trees with watering-pots appropriate to their
own (small) size. 19 If he is not the son of a sage, what is his
name? 20 Why should Caqakya, being sensible, anger [/have
angered] Candragupta over a trifling cause? And Candragupta,
conscious of his debt, would not violate [/have violated] his duty
of respect (just) for this much. 21 In that case beg to tell (my)
preceptor Somarata in my name that he should entertain those
hermitage dwellers [by the scriptural injunctions to ritual:] with
scriptural rite and personally show them in (to me). 22 But we
must remember the kindness of this king, in treating us though
guilty as graciously as if (we had been) innocent. 23 Ah fellow-
student in misery! if (it is) not secret, nor too burdensome, I
should like to hear your reason for (your intention of) sacrificing
your life. 24 Noble Vaihlnari, let the people be [made aware:]
given to understand that from today onward Candragupta shall
conduct state affairs in person, without reference to Canakya.
25 We for our part will exert ourselves (to see) that there is no
damage to the hermitage. 2 6 Is Candragupta now incapable of
imposing the yoke of his state administration upon another
[anyatra = anyasmin] minister or upon himself and (thus) taking
precautions for himself? 27 In truth, the greatest satisfaction
arises for myself, performing (as I am) before an audience that ap-
preciates especially good) literature. 28 Sakatadasa was impaled
after proclamation in the city that he had employed Daruvarman

and others to do violence to Candragupta’s person. 29 He of
course while any member at all of Nanda’s family is (still) alive
[jlvati loc. sg. pres, part.] cannot be brought to accept the post of
Vt§ala’s minister 30 The delightful thing in this is that Ministers
Bhfirivasu and Devarata’s desire for the ambrosia of a union of
each other’s offspring is at long last hereby fulfilled.

289

Exercise 14 a 1 Priyaqivadaka, find out who is standing at the

door wanting to see us. 2 Now where, I wonder can she have
gone? 3 There was (once) such a sage in this hermitage. 4
Sire, hear for what purpose Hari has sent me to you. 5 TTiough
addressed in these terms, I admonished him again and again. 6
My heart is grieved that Your Excellency has for (so) long given
up proper adornment of your person. 7 And a clamour of
[which the basis was] astonishment and delight rose up from the
people. 8 So tell the cast to be [not confused:] well rehearsed
in their various parts. 9 Just think, friend, on what pretext we
can go to the hermitage again. 10 If only Candragupta can be
separated from the vile CSqakya. 11 There is my noble elder
(brother), named Kufia, returned from Bharata’s hermitage. 12
But when the two of them had fallen asleep from the exhaustion
of love-making, they saw in a dream an old goose, its feet bound
with strands of lotus fibre; and they both woke up. 13 So en-
quire whether he may have any wife who is pregnant. 14
Noble six, this is no time for intimate conversation— and so I
(will) speak to you quite briefly. 15 How can I allow dear
Candraketu (to engage in) single combat with such a one? 16
So determining, 1 [/.] became anxious to get away. 17 [From
the numerousness of concerns:] My concerns are so numerous
that I cannot at all determine which concern it was that (I) sent
this agent of mine on. 18 If there exists any means of remedy-
ing (your) husband’s hostility, reveal it— for you have the
sharper mind [or a particularly sharp mind]. 19 And I spent the
day with her in just such conversation— in just that room and in
just that way, forbidding entry to all my servants. 20 Think of
some means, then, whereby my desires may be fulfilled. 21 And
hearing this, the prince mounted that same rutting elephant after
pushing out the driver; and made for the palace at top speed.
22 1 have learnt from my agents that out of the forces of the bar-
barian kings the five most important kings attend upon Rak$asa
with particular affection. 23 But if this rumour should reach
the king, it would be disastrous. 24 So determining, I took care
to search (for him). And, with my mind (made) nervous by my
fondness for my friend, fearing some awful thing or other the
more I failed to see him in my search, I roamed a good long time.

Sanskrit-English exercises: key

h exercises: key

directing my gaze sharply here and there, scrutinising the woods,
the groves of sandalwood-trees, the bowers of vine and the
banks of the lakes. 25 And in one place, borne suddenly on the
jungle breeze, spreading so as to overpower the perfume of other
flowers even in a forest fully in bloom, seeming with its extreme
fragrance to anoint and satisfy and enrich the sense of smell,
pursued by swarms of bees in rivalry (with each other), I smelt
a scent of blossom, such as I had never smelt before, one [not
appropriate:] alien to the human world.

Exercise 15 84 The divine sage so speaking, Parvati at her fa-

ther’s side, with face bent down, counted the petals on the [play
lotus:] lotus she was playing with.

Stanza 84: The divine sage (AAgiras) so speaking, Parvati at
her father’s side , being with face bent down (understand ‘because
of shyness’) counted (reckoned up) the petals on her play-lotus.
In other words, out of shyness she hid her delight under the pre-
tence of counting the petals on the lotus. This describes the
Subsidiary State (of mind) known as ‘Dissimulation’: to quote—

‘Now Dissimulation is the hiding of the expression of any
thing such as delight from (a motive) such as shyness.’

85 The Mountain(-god), though with his desires fulfilled, looked
at Menaf’s face]. Usually in matters (concerning) their daughters,
family-men make their wives their eyes.

Stanza 85: The Mountain (Himalaya) though with his desires
fulfilled (in other words, though resolved to bestow (her))
looked at Mena’s face (i.e. in his wish to determine the right an-
swer). The reason being : usually family-men (householders) in
matters concerning their daughters (in their daughters’ concerns)
are described as ones whose eye (means of perceiving matters)
is their wife. In other words, their conduct is submitted to the
authority of their spouse.

86 And Mena approved the whole matter desired by her
husband. [Those devoted to their husband:] Devoted wives are
unswerving [in respect of their husband’s wish:] in following
their husband’s wishes.

Stanza 86: And Mend approved (accepted) the whole matter
desired by her husband (Himalaya). The reason being: those
women whose vow is simply their husband are unswerving (ones
in whom there exists no swerving) in respect of their husband’s
wish (desire): that is, are aware of the inclination of their hus-
band’s mind.

8 j He, having deliberated in his mind [‘this is the proper answer
to this’:] what would be the proper answer to this, at the end of
the speech took hold of his auspiciously adorned daughter.

Stanza 87: He (Himalaya) at the end of the speech (at the con-
clusion of the sage’s utterance) having deliberated (having re-
flected) in his mind (in his thoughts) that this (the bestowal
about to be declared in the following stanza) would be the
proper (not lacking in propriety) answer to this (to the sage’s ut-
terance), took hold of (grasped in his arms) his auspiciously
adorned (adorned so that there was auspiciousness) daughter.

291

88 ‘Come, dear child, you are destined as alms for the Supreme
Godhead; the Sages are the petitioners— I have won the reward
of (being) a householder’

Stanza 88: O dear child (daughter) come (approach). You are
destined (fixed upon) as alms for the Supreme Godhead (for
Siva)— i.e. because of the saying that ‘the alms given to an asce-
tic may be anything at all from a gem to a clump of grass.’ The
Sages are the petitioners (are (here) to sue). / have won the re-
ward of a householder (of one in (charge of) a house). In other
words, because it is liberating in this world and the next, the be-
stowing of a daughter upon a worthy recipient is the reward of
being a householder

89 Having said this much to his daughter, the Mountain spoke
to the Sages, ‘Herewith the bride of the Three-Eyed God salutes
you all.’

Stanza 89: The Mountain (Himalaya) having said this much
(the foregoing words) to his daughter, spoke to the Sages. In
what terms?— ‘ Herewith the bride of the Three-Eyed God (the
wife of Tryambaka) salutes you all.’ By saying ‘the bride of the
Three-Eyed God’ as if it were an accomplished fact, he indicates
that the bestowal is immutably determined.

90 They, applauding the Mountain’s words, [generous in effect-
ing the wished-for object:] which generously granted their
wishes, blessed AmbikS with benedictions whose fulfilment
would be immediate.

Stanza 90: They (the Sages), applauding (praising with
‘bravo!’) the Mountain’s (Himalaya’s) words (statement), gener-
ous (noble) in effecting the wished-for object (because of per-
forming the desired object). According to Amara ‘udira is used
in the sense of datr granting or mah&nt great, noble’. [Despite
Mallirtfttha, the former sense is obviously not irrelevant here.]

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292

pakah fulfilment means that which is ripened, i.e. fruit, reward.
With benedictions (benisons) whose fulfilment would be imme-
diate (whose fruit was before the eyes) they blessed (congratu-
lated) Ambika (Amba).

91 Her; when her golden earrings slipped in her anxiety to salute
them, as she showed confusion, Arundhatl took upon her lap.

Stanza 91: Her (Ambika), whose golden (made out of gold)
earrings (gold ear-ornaments) slipped in her anxiety to salute
them (because of intentness upon making obeisance), as she
showed confusion Arundhatl took upon her lap . The p (in aro-
payim Ssa) occurs by the rule ‘(before the causative suffix) for
(the final h of) ruh, there occurs optionally p\

9Z And her mother; tearful-faced (and made) distressed by love
for her daughter; she set at ease by (describing) the qualities of
the suitor who had no other (with) prior (claim on him).

Stanza 91: And her mother (the mother (Mena) of her
(Ambika)) because of her love for her daughter (affection for her
child) distressed (afraid that she would be separated), and there-
fore tearful-faced (one on whose face there were tears). anyapOrva
means ‘having another woman as a prior (claim)’. The masculine
gender of the prior member of the compound occurs by the
rule that ‘a pronoun takes the masculine gender [in the sphere of
synthetic expression:] when forming part of a compound’,
ananyapfirva means not being this, and is here used in the geni-
tive. She set at ease (without distress) by the qualities (such as
being the Conqueror of Death) of the suitor (bridegroom) who
had no other with prior claim on him— in other words, who did
not occasion the distress caused by sharing a husband.

93 Being asked the date for the wedding thereupon by Hara’s
(new) kinsman, they the bark-garmented ones declared (it to be)
after three days, and departed.

Stanza 93: They (the ascetics) bark-garmented (dressed only in
bark) thereupon (at that very instant) by Hara’s kinsman
(Himalaya) being asked (questioned as to what was) the date for
the wedding (suitable for the wedding), tryahah means a group of
three days. The compound occurs by the rule that ‘(words denot-
ing a region or number compound with another word having the
same case-relationship) also (a) to express the sense that would be
expressed by a secondary suffix, (b) where there is a further mem-
ber (added to the compound), (c) to express collective sense’. The
suffix fac occurs by the rule that ‘(the compound-final suffix) tzc
occurs after the words riljan, ahan and sakhi’. The singular is

because it is a dvigu compound. It is masculine in gender by the
rule that ‘(when at the end of a co-ordinative or determinative
compound) the words ritra, ahna and aha occur in the mascu-
line’. Here the word is used in the ablative. They declared it after
(subsequent to) three days (said ‘the wedding (shall be) on the
fourth day’) and departed (went away).

94 They, after taking leave of Himalaya and going back to the
Trident-bearer and reporting to him that their business was ac-
complished, dismissed by him rose up to heaven.

Stanza 94: They (the Sages) taking leave (saying-goodbye
with the words ‘good, let us go’) of Him&laya , and going back
to the Trident-bearer (Hara), who was at the appointed place
[mentioned in fact in stanza 33], and reporting (announcing) to
him that their business (mission) was accomplished (completed),
dismissed by him (by the Trident-bearer) rose up (flew up) to-
wards heaven (the sky). In this (stanza), since there is a stating
of matters in a concise form, the quality known as ‘Conciseness’
is expressed: to quote—

‘Conciseness is declared to be [that which is] the stating of
matters in a concise form.’

293

(The poet now) states that the blessed PaSupati could not bear
even a delay of merely three days, because of his longing for her:

95 And PaSupati passed those days with difficulty, longing for
union with the Mountain’s daughter What other helpless (per-
son) would such emotions not torment, in that they affect even
him who is (so) powerful?

Stanza 9$: utka means ‘of whom the mind is utka [raised up,
i.e.] eager’. The form is given ready-made by the rule that ‘utka
occurs (in the sense of) one who is un_manas longing’. And
longing for union with the Mountain’s daughter (eager for
marriage with Parvatl) Pasupati passed (spent) those (under-
stand ‘three’) days with difficulty. The poet comments: such
emotions (the Subsidiary (States) such as longing) what other
(ordinary person) helpless (not in control of his senses) would
they not torment (cause mental disturbance to), in that (since)
even him (the Destroyer of Love) who is powerful (is capa-
ble— has conquered his senses, in fact) they affect (in other
words, mentally disturb)?

The embellishment here is Strong Presumption, since from (one)
matter; the confirmation of mental disturbance in the All-pow-
erful one, (another matter) the mental disturbance of other peo-
ple [presents itself:] is inferred on the a fortiori principle. As the

Sanskrit-English exercises: key

Sanskrtt-English exercises: key

294

sutra states, ‘Strong Presumption is the arising (through infer-
ence) of another matter by the stick-and-cake rule.’ Some con-
sider it Substantiation, but this should be disregarded, though
the arguments (for rejection) are not stated for fear of going on
too long.

The metre is Pu$pitagra, since this is defined as follows:

‘In the odd (lines), after two ns and an r, a y,

And ‘in the even (lines), n and j, j, r and g— (make) a
Pu§pitagra.’

Exercise 1b mah&yana, yoga, Mahabharata, Ramayaria,
purSija, jati, Bhima, Papini, sadhu, Kail, Kailasa, vihara, mlmaipsa,
agni, atman, papdita, k§atriya, vaiiya, iudra, capdala, rgveda,
mudra, karma, Jagannatha, Ganga, saipslqta, prakjta, ardhama-
gadhi, sandhi, aivamedha, bodhisattva, avagraha, Indra, Kf$ija,
Arjuna, Bhagavadgita, Paficatantra

In the following sentences words have been separated where ap-
propriate, but the student is of course not expected to have been
able to do this for himself:

i sakhy Anusuye na kevalam tStasya niyogo, mamapi saho-
darasneha ete?u z udakam lambhita ete gri§makalakusumaday-
ina airamavrksakah 3 idSnlm atikrantakusumasamayan api
vjk§akan sificamah 4 atipinaddhenaitena valkalena Priyaqi-
vadaya drdham plditasmi 5 tac chithilaya tavad enat 6 atra
tfivat payodharavistarayitaram atmano yauvanarambham up-
alabhasva 7 sakhyav e?a vateritapallavafigullbhih kim api
vyaharatlva maqi cutavfk§akah

Exercise 2a 1 svairam tamas> Iivarasy> aivau durjanah ias-
traii ciran muScanti raimibhya eva z aivav Iivarasy> aiva
svairam iastrai raimibhyo muScanti cirad durjanas tamasi
3 svairam ev> eivarasya muficanty aivau iastrair durjanai cirat
tamasi raimibhyah 4 muficanty eva tamasy aivau iastrair !i-
varasya cirad raimibhyo durjanah svairam 5 raimibhyas
tamasi iastrair muficanti cirad eva svairam Iivarasy> aivau
durjanah 6 iastrais tamasi raimibhyah svairaip durjana li-
varasya cirad aivau muficanty eva 7 tamasi durjana raimi-
bhyai cirad Tivarasy> aivau svairam muficanti iastrair eva 8
muficanti durjana eva raimibhyo >ivav iivarasya cirfit svairaip
iastrais tamasi

f J English-Sanskrit exercises: Roman key

Exercise 2c i bhramasi z adhuna >vagacchamah 3 tatr> api
njtyati 4 atra vasathah? 5 kathaip, jayanti? 6 upaviSavah

7 evam na vadatab 8 kiip punar api prcchasi? 9 atra kiip
likhami? 10 kim na paSyasi? ir gayath> eva iz gacchanty
agacchanti ca (Note die usual order of this pair in Sanskrit.)
1 3 adhuna jlvati ca Socati ca 14 paSyati vadat> iva ca 13 ‘kim
icchath>?’ eti prcchanti 16 agacchant> iti gacchamah 17 na
punar madyamah 18 evam api smaravah— kiip smarathah?—
‘adya n> agacchat>’ iti (Note that the context shows ‘you’ to be
dual.)

Exercise 3b 1 jala;bhojane icchamah [Note the absence of
sandhi.] z SIghram aSvam paSyatah 3 panditah kim icchatha?
4 tv am balam iva krodho jayati 5 kav acaryau paSyasi?
6 surya iv> adya candrah Sobhanah 7 api ramaQlyab sab?

8 acarya, ko brahmapa ita agacchati? 9 atra kiqi phalam? 10
balah, kva sa acSryah? 11 kiip ramapiyany api vacanani na
smaratha? iz svalpam phalam paSyamah 13 api vismita
acaryah? 14 k§etra; parvata;vanani balau pa§yatah 15 ‘sukham
sa n> ecchat>’ iti kiip vadatha? 16 k§etraip gajam nayanti 17
kva punar bhojanam iti maqi na vadasi 18 vismitam janam
brahmapa iva sa naro vadati

Exercise 4b 1 pariSranto devah— atr> dpaviSavah z na vis-
mrtani janen> aitani vacanani 3 Sobhanam ev> aitat 4 vanaip
gato >pi [or gatam api] putrarp smarati 5 ady> aiv> agata vayam
6 deva, adhuna >py etabhyaip balabhyam udyinam na tyaktam 7
e§a vayasyaih saha tisthati 8 atra kim adbhutam? — prathamam
eva df§to may» ai§a narah 9 e§a agata eva deva§ Candraguptah
10 drsfam kutuhalen> asmabhir udyanam 11 vanaip
v»6dyanaip va gatah xz vayasyah, duram eten> a§vena vayam
anltah 13 krtarp sarpdehena— etau jlvitav Igacchatah §i§yau

14 ady> api sukhen> aiva tad adbhutaip darfianam smaramah

1 5 jit5s te vi§adena 16 vismita apy etena darSanena, prayatnaip
na tyajanti

Exercise 5b 1 andhah khalv asi z asmad grhad vanSni sa
nltah 3 tair apy udyanaip gatva papa grhitSh 4 adbhuto
>nayoh krodhah 5 putrah, dr§{5h stha 6 santi tv asmakaip
CandanadSsasya grhe mitrapi 7 pariSranto >sm> iti prcchami 8
sarve§u de§asya margesu dr§(am idam asmabhih 9 deva, sa ev>
asmi kumarah 10 andhasya padayoh patati 11 sarve maya
ken> apy upayena df?{ah iz krodhay> aitat kumarasya prativa-
canam 13 Srutva tv etan marga upavi§anti 14 Kalahamsaka,

na nab kutuhalaip pustake§u i$ ekasminn ev> ddyane puspapi
kanicid bhavanti 1 6 dr$fva >pi sarvam n> aiva kiipcid vadati '
kumarah 17 kathaip samdeha ev> atra te? 18 ha Makaranda,
ha Kalahaipsaka, gato vaip vayasyah [Note that ‘your’ must be
dual.] 19 kumarepa tv anyasmin de§e sthitva sarvarp papasya
prativacanarp Srutam 20 krodhe kim phalam e§a patyati?

Exercise 6b 1 alrama-mpgo >yam z lqtah kary>-arambhah
3 ayam amatya:R 5 k$asas ti$thati 4 mudha, n> ayarp parihasa- j-
kalah 5 iyam tarhi kasya mudra? 6 abhijflah khalv asi loka- •<
vyavaharapim 7 tat kipa na parigfhltam asmad-vacanam
paura:janena? 8 aho, pravata-subhago >yaqi van>-6ddeisah 9
alam aSankaya 10 labdham netra-nirvapam 11 kathaip na
paSyasi Ramasy> avastham? iz Sarngarava, sthane khalu pura- —
praveSat tav> edfSab saipvegah 13 asty etat kula-vrataip
Pauravanam 14 bhadre, prathitaip Duh^anta-caritam prajasu
1$ tat kftam idanlm 5 ia:vyasanena 16 na khalu satyam eva ta-
pasa-kanyayam abhila§o me 17 candr>-oparagaip prati tu, ken>
api vipralabdha >si 18 ih> aiva priya-paribhukte latamapdape
muhflrtam ti§thami

Exercise 7b 1 Atreyy asmi z vardhayasi me kutuhalam 3
tad idaip sarasl-tiram 4 yavad eta§ chayam a&ritah pratipalayami

5 k$udra:jana-k$unpa e$a margah 6 vyaktam etany api Capakya-
prayuktena vapija >smasu vikr!t 5 ni 7 aho, dar&ito mitra-snehah
8 Sirasi bhayam dure tat-pratlkarah 9 sakhi Madayantike, sva-
gatam. anugrhitam asmad-gjhraip bhavatya 10 e$a vivada eva
maip pratyayayati n samid-aharapaya prasthitSv av 5 m
[ 3 harap>-artham would also do. Note samid from samidh by ex-
ternal sandhi.] iz kimartham bhavatlbhyam prati?iddho >smi?

13 Kalaharnsaka;Makaranda-prave§>-avasare tat su:vihitam 14
katham, tatena dhrta:purvam idam abharapam? 1 5 niyukt» aiva
maya tatra tat-priya: sakhi Buddharak?ita 16 etav eva Ramayapa-
katha-puru$au? 17 anena priya:suhrda Siddharthakena ghStakan
vidravya vadhya-sthanad apahfto >smi 18 anya ev> ayam
a:k$uppah katha-prakSro bhagavatyab 19 kum 5 ra:Lavapra-
yukta:Varup>:astra-prabhavah khalv esab zo sa khalu vaidyas
tad ev> au$adharp payital c> oparataS ca

Exercise 8b 1 nijfiah pratigraho >yam 2 gato >ham Avalokita-
janitaikautukah Kamadev>-ayatanam 3 amatya-nam>-ankit»
eyam mudra 4 pari?an-nirdi$taigupaip prabandhaip n> adhigac-
chamah $ nanu yuyam apy anena dharma-karmapa pariSrantah

6 e$o >smi KamandakI samvjttab. aham apy Avalokita 7
Vr§ala, svayam an:abhiyuktanam rajfiSm ete do§a bhavanti

English-Sanskrtt
exercises: Romar

English-Sanskrit
exercises: Roman key

298

8 tat kim avanata;mukha:pupdarikah sthito >si? 9 tatra hi me
priya:suhrd vaitalika^vyafijanah StanakalaSo nama pradvasad
10 api vayasyena vidite tad-anvaya;namanl? 11 priye, kraur-
yam api me tvayi prayuktam anukolaipariparnam samvjttam. tad
aham idanlm tvaya pratyabhijffatam atmanam icchami 11
Urva§Igata:manaso >pi me sa eva devyam bahumanah 13 kim
tv arapya-sado vayam an:abhyasta;ratha : caryah 14 tad asy>
aiva tavad ucchvasita:kusuma-kesarakasaya;Sital>Tamoda-
vasit>;odyanasya kaflcanara:padapasy> adhastad upaviSavah 15
vidita;Slta : vrttant» eyam 16 aye, any>- 5 saktaicitto devah 17
kiqunamadheyam etad devya vratam? 18 sa c> angurlyaka-
dar§an>;avasanah §apah 19 vaimanasya-parlto >pi priya;da-
rSano devah

Exercise 9b 1 api nir_vighnam tapah? a vayasya
Makaranda, api bhav 3 n utkapthate Madayantikayah? 3 kva
punar Malati Madhavaip pr 3 g dr?favatl? 4 arye, e$a nirjajjo
Lak$manah prapamati 5 kirn kathayanti bhavantah? 6
atyudara;prakftir Malati 7 ramapiyah khalv amatya-.Bhurivasor
vibhutayah 8 atidarupo jana-sammardo vartate 9 Sakun-
talayah prathama.-darfana-vjttantaip kathitavan asmi bhvate 10
bhagavaty Arundhati, Vaidehah Slradhvajo >bhivadaye 11 api
k§amante >smad-upajapaqi Candraguptaprakrtayah? iz
a:sarpnihitam eva m 3 rp manyate 13 apurvah ko >pi bahumSna-
hetur guru?u, Saudhatake 14 e?a Raksasa-prayukto vi$a-
kanyaya ParvateSvaram ghadtavan 15 M 5 dhavasy> afijalau
bakula-malam nik§ipati 16 di§{ya Mahendr>-opak 3 ra-
paryaptena vikrama-mahimna vardhate bhavan 17 tatah pra-
viSati yath»_okta;vyapara saha sakhlbhyam Sakuntala 18
vayasya, nanv araatya-bhavan>-asanna:rathyay» aiva bahuSab
sarpcaravahe— tad upapannam etat 19 Candragupta-pralqtl-
nam hi Capakya-dos 3 ev> aparaga-hetavah zo vayasya, nir_av-
agraham dahati daivam iva darupo vivasvan zi sadhu Vf§ala
s 5 dhu— mam> aiva hrdayena saha saqimantrya sanadi§Javan asi
zz aye, ‘Kusumapura-vjttanta-jffo >ham, bhavat-prapidhiS c>’ 6ti
gatha->rthah Z3 etav Aditiparivardhitaimandara-Vrksakam
Prajapater aSramapadam pravi?tau svah Z4 imam ugr>;atapaip
velSm prayepa lata-valaya vatsu Malin!-tlre?u sa_sakhl:jan 5
tatrabhavati gamayati

Exercise 10b 1 aryah paSyata z aho maharghyapy
abharapani 3 paSyanti tisjhari 4 tvaratam atrabhavatl 5
trikaladarSibhir munibhir 5 di§tah sur>;asura-vimardo bhavi 6
bahuipratyavayarp nfpatvam 7 ata eva bhavad^vidha mahan-
tah 8 astu te karya-siddhih 9 mudram paripalayann udvesfya

darSaya io aho viveka-§unya~t 5 mlecchasya 1 1 nigrhya Sok>-
ave§am mam anugacchatam 12 vatsa, kary>-abhiyoga ev>
asman akulayati, na punar upadhyaya-sahabhuh §isya:jane duh§I-
lata 13 pariharantam api mam Paffcavati-sneho balad akar$at>
tva 14 aho madhuram asam darSanam 15 Citralekhe, tvaray>
OrvaSlm 1 6 asty etad anyasamadhi-bhlru~tvam devanam 17
utsarpini khalu mahataip prarthana 18 sampratam eva
Kusumapur>oparodhanaya prati$thantam asmad-balani 19
vismrta bhavad-guna-pak$apatina maya svami-gupah 20
Priyamvadaka, na nah kutuhalam sarpe$u— tat parito?ya visar-
jay>ainam 21 £acl-tlrthe salilam vandamanayas tava sakhyah
paribhra§tam 22 vatsa, savadhano bhava 23 karya-vyagra~tvan
manasah prabhOtatvac ca prapidhlnam vismrtam 24 arya Jajale,
tvam api sa_parijano nivartasva — Bhagurayapa ev> aiko mam
anugacchatu 25 aho Sarat:samaya-sambhrtai§obha r vibhutI-
naqi di§ 5 m ati$aya:ramapiya~ta 2 6 tata ekasmad bhitti-
cchidrad grhlta: bhakt> r avayavanaip pipllikanam ni§kramantlnam
panktim avalokya, ‘puru$aigarbham etad gfham’ iti grhi-
t>iarthena dahitam tad eva Sayana-grham

299

Exercise 11b 1 dlyatam asmai prativacanam 2 bhratarav
avam yamajau 3 na ni$_prayojanam adhikara vantah prabhu-
bhir ahuyante 4 atr> aiva sthlyatam 5 yat tad alamkarapa-
trayam kritaip, tan-madhyad ekam dlyatam 6 vimucyantam
abhlSavah 7 kim ucyate ‘dhairyam’ iti? 8 bhadras tvaryatam
tvaryatam 9 abhivyaktayam candrikayam kixn dipika-paunaruk-
tena? io Latavya, ahuyatam UrvaSl 11 aye, tad idam
abharapam yan maya svatSarlrad avatarya Rak?asaya pre§itam
12 ayi vatse, evam atma stuyate 13 parito§ya vikretaraip
grhyatam 14 arya, asti kakid yah Kusumapuram gacchati, tata
Sgacchati v 5 ? 15 praveSyatam 1 6 kipp mr?a tarkep> anvi$yate?
17 ‘amatya’ iti lajja-karam idanim vi§e§apa:padam 18 hanta,
mudha ev> asmi, yo >smin vanecare vayasya:Makarand>-ocitam
vyavaharami 19 samarpyatam Rak?asasya grha-janah.
anubhuyatam ciram vicitraiphalo raja-pras 5 dah 20 rak$yatam
para-kalatrep> atamanah kalatram jlvitain ca 21 sa esa
Kamandakl-suhrtputro maha:mamsasya papayita Madhavah 22
ye§am antevasinaip hastena tat pustakam Bharat>-a$ramam
pre^itam, te$am anuyatrikaS capaipapih pramad>apanodan>-artham
asmad-bhrata pre§itah 23 anantaram ca yatra-bhanga-pracalita-
sya mahatah paura:janasya saipkulena vighaptayam tasyam agato
>smi 24 murkha, anyam eva bhagam ete tapasvino nirvapanti, yo
ratna-raSin api vihay> abhinandyate 25 evam atm>-abhipraya-
sambhavioi esta:jana : cittavrttih prarthayita vipralabhyate

English-Sanskrit
exercises: Roman key

Engllsh-Sanskrit

300

I

Exercise 12b i kixp bravl$i? 2 anena lekhena Rak$aso je-
tavyah 3 tatr> aiva Makaranda;Madayantik»-agamanam yavat
sthatavyam 4 Srpuvas tSvat 5 hanta, hfdayam api me ripu-
bhih svlkftam 6 asyam a§oka-cchayayam astam ayu§man, yavat
tram aham Indra-gurave nivedayami 7 raksaplya Rak$asasya
prapa ity ary>adeSah 8 tad yatha bhavitavyaip tathl bhavatu 9
sarvam eva tantram akullbhutam 10 kirp bhavaips tu$plm aste?
11 tad atra vastuny an:upalabhyo Rak$asah 12 bhadra
Bhasvaraka, bahir nltva tavat tadyataip yavat kathyate >nena
13 Sjpu vicitram idam 14 asminn eva vetasa;lata-mapdape
bhavitavyaip Sakuntalaya 15 tad idanlip sahadharmacaripaip
prati na tvaya manyuh karaplyah 16 tam ev> oddeSam gac-
chami yatra me nayanayoh sa su;nayana tiro~bhuta 17 avi§kj-
tam katha-pravinyaip vatsena 18 tena hi tat-prayogad ev>
atrabhavatah samajikan upasmahe 19 kumara iv> amatikramap'
iyaxvacano bhavan api 20 arsamyak certain priyam samasadya
k ala-bar apam kurvata maya 21 ka${am, ete suhrd-vyasanesu
para vad udasinah pratyadilyamahe vayam anena 22 bhoh
§re$thin, sa c> aparikleSah katham avirbhavat> iti nanu pra$tavya
vayam eva bhavata 23 yavad ete Manas>-otsukah patatripah
saraso n> otpatanti, tavad etebhyah priya-pravjttir avagamayi-
tavya 24 tatas te$u grhlta:samjffe?u bhapapadelad itas tatah
pradrute$u Sakatadaso vadhyasthanad apaniya Rak§asaip pr 5 -
payitavyah 25 yad» aiv> apsaras-tlrthat pratyakhyana-
vildavam Sakuntalam adaya Daksayaplm upagata Menaka, tad»
aiva dhyanad avagataivrttSnto >smi ‘Durvasasah gapad iyaip
tapasvini sahadhamacaripa pratyadi?t»’ Sti

Exercise 13b 1 Vijaye, pratyabhijanati bhavati bhugapam
idam? 2 Safhah khalv asau batuh 3 su:vihitam Lavangikaya,
yato Madhav>-anucarah Kalahamsakas tSrp viharadas'up
Mandarikaip kamayate 4 kva punar mam bhavatyah
pratipalayijy anti ? 5 katham, a:dattv» aiva prativacanaqi narti-
tum arabdhah 6 katham, madanve$ipah sainikas tapo-vanam up-
arundhanti? 7 kamam etad abhina'ndaniyain, tathS >pi vayam
atra madhyasthah 8 n> aticirad amatyo >sman puratanim
avastham aropayi$yati 9 na yuktatp pralqtam api purusam
avajfiatum 10 rajan Candragupta, viditam eva te yatha vayam
Malayaketau kim cit kal>-antaram u$itah 11 bho Vi§pugupta,
na mirp £vapaka-spar§adu§itam spra&um arhasi 12 vatsa, kac-
cid abhinanditas tvaya vidhivad asmabhir anusthita:jata-karm>:
5 di:kriyah putra e§a Sakuntaleyah? 13 tad anujanlhi mam
gamanaya 14 na Saknumo vayam aryasya vies v 5 cam atiSayi-
tum 15 yady evam abhiyoga-kalam aryah paSyati, tat kim

asyate? 16 bhadra, praviSa-lapsyase Srotaram jflataram ca 17
‘idanim eva duhitaram atithi-satkaray> adiSya, daivam asyah
pratikulam Samayituqi Somatlrtham gatah’-yady evam, tam eva
draksySmi’ 18 sakhe, kim a:$raddadhanah prcchasi? 19 kim
ajkjatriya prthivi, yad evam udghusyate? 20 bhadra, kasmimS
cid apta : j an>anu$they e karmapi tvam vyaparayitum icchami 21
sa cen muni-dauhitras tal:lak$ap>-opapanno bbavati tatah prati-
nandya Suddhantam enSip pravefiayi?yasi 22 tat kim ujjihanaijl-
vitam varakim n> anukampase? 23 na ni$_parigraham sthana-
bhramSah pidayisyati 24 Candragupta-Sarlram abhidrogdhum
asmat-prayuktanam tlk§na:rasa-d>iadinam upasamgrah>-artham
prakrty-upajap>-artham ca mahata kosa-samcayena sthapitah
Sakajadasab 25 sakhe MSdhavya, an:avaptaicak§uh-phalo >si,
yena tvaya dra$|avyanam param na dy?{am 2 6 bhoh Sre§{hin
Candanadasa, evam raj>apathya-kari§u tikppaidapdo raja na
manpayisyati Rakpasa-kalatra-pracchadanam bhavatah 27 yato
>ml vyaghr>iadayo varpa^matra-vipralabdhah Srgalam a-.jrlatva
rajanam amum manyante, tad yatba >yam pariclyate tatha ku-
ruta 28 deva, jlvitu^kamah ko>nyo devasya Sasanam ui-
langhayisyati? 29 yady api svami-gupa na sakyante vismar-
tuqi, tatha >pi madvijflapanaqi manayitum arhaty aryah

301

Exercise 14b I Latavya, api janlte bhavan kasy> ayam bapa id?
2 aye murkha, kim bhavSn asmakam upadhyayad dharma-vit
tarah? 3 nyaiamayaip ca tasminn aSrame kasya cic cuta-
potakasya cch 5 yay 3 ip kam apy udvignaivanjaip tapasam
4 vayasya, ahgull-svedena du§yerann aksarapi 5 tat ko >yam
pade pade mahan an:adhyavasayah? 6 ity uktva ca s 3 tSmbGla-
bhajanad akrpya tam adarSayat 7 avasare khaiv
anurag>;opakarayor gariyasor upanyasah 8 Raivataka, ucyatam
asmat-sarathih sa_bapa5 c armukam ratham upasthapay> 6d 9 sa
kadacid dhairya-skhalana-vilaksah kim cid aniftam api sam 3 caret

10 yavad aSrpavam Malaty ev>asya manmath>-onmatha-hetur iti

11 nikhil>:antahpura-sv 3 minl ca tasy> abhavat 12 ucyatam kim
te bhuyah priyam upakaromi 13 ity abhidhaya kim iyam
vaksyap iti man-muldi>-asakta:d|stis tusnlm aslt 14 tat kuto
>smin vipine priya-pravrttim agamayeyam? 15 sa kila krpalus
tam janam ardraya gir» a&vasy> arti-karapam tam ganikam aprc-
chat 16 kumara, na kadacid api Sakatadaso >matya:Rak?asasy>
agrato ‘maya likhitam’ iti pratipatsyate 17 sakhe Bhagurayapa,
nanv asmakam amatya:Rak$asah priyatamo hitatamaS ca 18
apayatayam bhavatyam muhurtam iva sthitv» aikaki ‘kim ayam
idSnim aearaP?’ id samj atamtarkah pratinivrtya vi{ap>-antarita;vi-
grahas tanx pradeSam vyalokayam 19 api nama mrgatr§pik» eva n>

Eftglish-Sanskrit
exercises; Roman key

Engllsh-Sanskrlt
exercises: Roman key

302

ayam ante prastavo vi$adaya kalpeta zo surpopasthanSt pra-
tinivxttaqi Pururavasqi mam upetya kathyataip kuto bhavatyafc
paritratavya id zi ity abhidadhSna madana-murcha-kheda-vih-
valair angaib katbaqi cid avalambya tam ev> 6dati§tham. uccal-
it 3 yS£ ca me dumimitta-nivedakam aspandata dak$ipam locanam.
upajata:£anka c> acintayam ‘idam aparam kim apy upak$iptam
daiven>’ Sti zz yady asmatto garlyan Rak§aso >vagamyate, tadl
>smakam idaip Sastraip tasmai dlyatam Z3 sakhe, Candraguptasp
aiva t 3 van nagara-praveSat prabhrti mat-prayuktais tlk§pa:rasa-
d>;adibhih kim anu§{hitam id Srotum icchami 24 yadi punar
idrSam tvam Aik$vako raja Ramah paSyet tada >sya snehena hjr-
dayam abhi$yandeta Z5 id vicarayantlm eva mam a:vicarita;
gufla;do§a r viSeso rup>-aika:pak§apatl navaryauvana-sulabhab
kusum>ayudhab kusuma-samaya-mada iva madhukarim par-
avaSam akarot

303

Exercise la i #n i w i %i i forc r uft i i i

snfrRra 135 ia*?ife iwarc 1 3#^ 1 yifRrar i 3 c*r iftns ngpjfir 1

feg I l^fe^R I3JJRK I?#) |3W#T 1 5=ricWf*R 1 %(RT lilf^l

i , 5FSf?r i i *r i ferf: i fefa i *i4mr i ’rora'f i m i
feUFfalfep II

Wit gfeRn\ r i ^ r 1 3?^4><ifll^Pr^»n?im^r4 : rispt
3*3*3 ^TRiftcri ^iPt iv i *3 iwnA^i^uii^TO^Hiii^tri *1*03*#
mi w m (inrawll i$i TigR^r -p# sft
ftniT sftr d4>^ i P< -HHifa<w3»ffiHRfrricHp(

^^We|Rrf<i<fl|3 ftfcflT IVSI

Exercise 2a *tt jwlroi?! fsfe: Ti^RFprPcr *fe?«r 1? 1

3Hsi4te**ta ?M ti 4 Tfernif ggfa faayforewfa r i

3*R*RJt JfT^j^^KIrRftr 131 5*^3 3l40w?H

f*R!5feP# 3#H: IV I lfel«RcRfiT *l4^sPd (*l<fel

fife: m I ^mf% *fere: 1&t ffe ftKW gSR^ t 1^1 cRftr

ffe <RHHi®Ri4)WJRra1 ^k pfkr 71 #^ ivs 1 ggfe ffe v$ dww?l

SWdkll'W flR'Wt4< 3i&*wRi wc 11

Exercise 2c fek r i agwraiiH: r 1 P 3ifk gr*rfcr 13 1 srt =rw:
imfefekr mifefeier: tfiqfew: wifef?tfir3?3ftr i^i»r
fefestfk R ife^nrafe ro iWta r * 1 h^wi^Pa ^ r R^iag^i
feft ^ ## ^ R31 tmRr^fe^r rv i fePw&Ri rm
3H 4 M>rflld W: R$R3^fiaR: RVs 1 TjcRpf TOR: ifeTO: 1313
dR^fa HUH

English-Sanskrit exercises: nagari key

English-SanskrK
exercises: nagar! key

304

Exercise 3b I* i Wf: R I iPteU: |SpPl%«*r

I? I cSlt "drifts ?RWf ^PiRr IV I M^ify m I 33RT ’SRfc

I$l3iftwfor:*f: !Vs 1 3*raFf *Pt 9IUW fcl \L I \\ I

:9? ¥«irar4: I* o 1 1% wflqpipf g«Rll?| 1 FR*I IUIWIW
Wf: 1*31 3# 3?raraf: 1*3 I Hfa'ItfcTeHlPl TORT: l*VI3|Ei

^■W'iTct^^sT i^m^iirsr^r t*$iirgwf3Rf^*tfrara3fe i*vsi

ilrf§ra3Ftiisra3ars#5*$r u

Exercise 4b Mfasurat ^T:— erilMpRlW: I* I l vsf&uPI

r i 13 1 *rat sflr (’RraPr) 3? wfir iv 1 er&prar

wt\ m 1 sipF%«ii «n«iwiigari 1 i$i m fitsfir

IV3 1 3T3 JW»^c| ^ *i<j«T SRT: l<J 1 1J?T 3TOT TJ=T I* I

f^rroiPT^aH^ 1* 0 1 #aii ^nra: 1**1 raron:

qwfaU : 1*3 Iffr T# 1*3 ISRnflri^
<F?gcTl#f3*TCFT: l*Vlf^rarat%I^T l*klfa#rai3fat^Tl^JH#l
?roftr 11* $11

Exercise 5b 3RT: I* I ai OT S g ff Tlft ¥ %: R l fo o jS R TOR

Wliar: l3ia^3^t:s^T: IV I $TT: 1BT: ^T M «fel cSOTI* ^^1-

^TllPraTfa 1 i 1 Rforrrat wflRi 4^«Pi le 1 *i% ^31^ ^1% fgfli<w*#T:

\C I ^ 3J H3#f I* I arsflFTirait: IrlRT 1*0 | *|f W iRFg'Ffr
1HT: 1**1 1**1 5o3T •i'lfasrlFci 1*31

1 ’f: 3W«t>3 i*v 1 ^R^slqlaA 4>iPtf^^fra i*m
israfa s# fofasRi frar: i*$i ^ra 3^3313 ft i^imuncra!
<+i«se4> ’rat gr i*<£ i grafts R*im raft mww hRr^

3 ^i**i^t% W rawftr 113 on

Exercise 6b ansraffts^i* 1 f^ ; <pirafc«i: R 1 ■

131 *js raft iRsrawrei: ivi sft rail raw *p mi Ta?rafra
#f>38isi«iivn^ 1 i 1 rafi% * ftUqiN ivsisrtJrcrairaitsft

3pftft3T: \C 1 SRrWWgll I* I eR I* ° iraftl MlWfe '<THWH«*IIH,

1*3 1 raft rafraft 3:«rrarafci tot§ i*v 1 ra< f ra ft ^p n <raraftH i*m^
rarraft** mme<Mi<ii«iPi«ii4l % 1 * it «HSlmHi 3fft <j ftraifft ffturasirfra i*vs 1
it^ Ih^NR^tK ^idN^ IrtSlPl ll*<ill

Exercise 7b areteife i \\ R I gftj R I

gwW*iigigi8ra: gfirerergift iv i fpsRgnpi g*r gpf: mi sggftgRft
s- p e e i^^r g ftMffl i ^ fasfldift i i, i si^i s^fft ft=R% ivs i ftrcftr »rg
cRJidtec: i c i *ftr gggftft* wran, 1 sy'j&wwfs \\ i w
ftgrc ^ gr ncqiggfa u o i gftgnrmg sfaraigigpi, it u ftR*f *ra^t»=qt
flfclPntr sl?tT R3 I F<rl4«F*W«W^ll<«|} g^fgfta^ \\%\ W^tllcR
^ ■ i«iPK*fW<ui*i, R*1 ft#3 w -m dfomiisil fg^RIT RSI iftftg

sf^tt RVsl SRI ggm^lftl: gsiiugirct ^W^T: R 6 1 JiW(?l«i-
H^cll^n^lWR: R 1 1 ^T ^ 4aW^«i»l Fftg«lft<:gsr IRoll

Exercise 8b mi: gfirat sg\ r i grit 3fqg#^rcrraft?!3^p>:
♦w^rwwL R i swRggraifgriggsr r 1 y^giftRSR: ivi
^3 »)4+4^li mR^HI: IS igftsf^FPFgsftg^rf: i SifgoigsWsBcil

Ki wwHfHgwwi Tiiftri riftr g^ftr tvs i crt^ws^Rjge^ps^:
sfcr u i era ft *f ftgplaiRraarag: hr ufaggfri Risiftgg#*

ftftrt cRF^PRWft Ro | ft% gfcfoft *t ?gft Sp^<fc<flqR'« I

g^sfagr-ff wit uu iisri^WTOftsft^g-gsW

«(§mii: I? ^ I i%fSTWJ^^Wr«RfRSRraf: I?? I <K^4«i

RVSl*M

Ihl^ *l^«Wfl«il R$l &RRiM*)d^iT ^
«I*fl«WR: WT: I U I frftP ftftril Sft IRtll

Exercise 9b sift ftf^M cR: r i gg*g ^fr? sift ggiggR&l
wftwwi: RIF JRfari) ftgg JPflPRft R I Sitf 1ft FW:
W# IV I 1% Wlft M^Rl: IS I Si^WfRw^ Kl Wffaf:

Sc^iicq^ftsra^jtPT: ivs i siRi'^uil swwrif g# \c i wfFcflgi:
gggg?fr?gRi FftggF#r ggit i c i wiwfa *ik*gril 5fagig*t
K o i sift greft sRgqFft g-j^suit^ : <U ISRi ftft^ ^^F^ it ^ i
si^f: ft sft gpFfts^ iu nft wstatfl ftw^rai gririwt
g i Rrag r i . rvi qig g-wiawl <4 g >dMMi ftftwft rs
ftsfwften gtfri ggi\ r i\ gg: mRriRi gstowiNHi w f
rvsi gg^i gFRipqvgrogftg^g g§?i: *N<i4 i a§MMsftg«v \\6\

SEULBUEiSICiilffcmEaHtiltiglUMUEfiE

grp’frtgg^gi^ ro r

English-Sanskrtt
exercises: nagarl key

exercises: nagarl key

Sg nw tf : R3 I Wl^l4R«WdH^K3«RS

m gsiiqawm4 flfasfr **: mi gmfflwqi M Jn^r ^frrowg

<| MlPd^cfttS TOsStSHI W*|R| IRttll

I Exercise 10b sirqf: q?ra r i3#qgwtwnMWift r i w^ RikRi 13 i
I re i ftq^RfPi^ro^®: «n4t w \ qfRWi

i^ia^^qjpffefe: \c i gsa qRqwq^q
R 1 <H^I R o I pR® *ll<t>|q?i R \ I^W

( qi qwAv^l <wwm>WI«i r 3 1 3$*i§wrai '<fa\ r* i flw«rtd

US I R$l 3«#ft 13$ W m*k RVs 1

W<T*ta fPS^qtlRPr kldB^WWiStflPl R4I foPp WWllRRI W
^iPgw: mi ^ jqpi *$3 i 3 <nR#*i larcrsHN ^ r ° i ?i41<M
^fcTef SRHRiqiScMI OTI: qftUKH, RU ^PWRt ^ R R I
«*>l4«HWHW*l: JPJjlMIff TpRfftl R3 I »n4 *1131$ «qft5R>
Prafe i tiijuqor BRfr^3 rvi 3#

LB I Sill I E-jJEKIEiifcMtlkiLiB K,: u I fi lira fi ItJ GCi ra fr K: t < L. S L iVJ ■ 1 tLUl

Exercise 11b 4 Nir^ R i wairawi r i q

R*H4l«n , qpi<#iR<Ri: jrgPro^i^ 13 1 sdk wtotfiH. re 1 <wwifcM»w4 a?tw
<H)W|faii <9^1^ m I (JqaRU^W: tvs 1 HSI*tf4cli

1 c 1 aiftoTOwi *tf%5»iq t r iRRM ^r i is^il

r o 1 3t 4 dfeHwin <hri 'uqraw Jifttin, ri 1 srfa «r$

V^HIrHI I U I MR^N ftihlBK R 3 1 3lrf 3l fc l 3®ra:

i^RnraarpT^fa^T R'x iqsi^ran^RH i^^qr^if^si^ R$t«wrc*r

|f?T R53pRtwff fipfNuro^ RVs I l^r *J5 T?3#T

aroww**^# sq^ifoPr r c t w4ai iresraw tbsr: i s^jrar far

rarflraM IWHflK: R S I vm TOk T > I R«H : BigET ^ Ronjqq

wriwr qmiRrar w: r* i 4qm^iRHi
?#T cT ffi«4» < R«bN UN ^mgpifi«WII«WlPl : H^KIM^I^W^Icll Tlftcf:
rr i apRTf * W: ^aT’fvq if#r l^fe tRt trew rrc a
5^T R3 I 3F^«r gq^4r R4 mP3 % PtbsiPtwH

R* I qi#f«l IRMI

Exercise 12b f% 341ft R 1 {WS$\ ^*3 : R 1 ? &f * EK F 5-

HqqforeiTO urarwraotiH. m mi wz 3333 ft % ftjft:

^flf?i^ m i ft%33ift lit

wfcn jpjt va i 3ft?fsi m 333 \c i ^4*fa

r i ft? r o i %w y^pqgwiw^Tm: mi

33 M rei re ? qftfe i mra w i^a i s3ft Rqi^ftftraft^iui

3#|ifa 2k«WKrlcUHV8*t 3ftcP? JfgRtW<ll RX I ^StpfalftoT JltcT 3

<33T W%: 3?*4ft: I U I dfrjftifi 3^lfc m fr 33=ftfr: 3T ^PRT fcKfrp
\\i\ snfsrtfRT riffled «4 3R#q rvsi ffr ft flBwInftwisra:
qmiftwawft iui J 3K iHHftsra4)333Ht 33Hft mi
firar twwia shsisot f4at w im iPrasfts 1 k^§<i#ii:
n?*nftwft epp#r r \ i 3t: Slft^ 3ml%Ki: wnft'fofflft 33 Jfgsir
33*13 3331 Rq I Mti4ilcy<M: '4ctR( u l: ■W^Jl ■ildldPa {H<Afh3:
rn<KM«i(xRc|)|JJ[ftd3MI R?| ?Rf^5 ‘l^cra^S 'Wiq^fTlftdWfl: 3|4g

IfWZ^I e MfWHPWtto W WNfa'd*!: R* I

?nqift4 flqfetft ■h^i4«iiRuii nrqiftitRi irmi

R I TO: *353^33:

Exercise 13b

R I iftftci <rMfft c MI <#><rt&l'tRdi Rl^lWItlT *i*<ilR«m <wh«kI

r ii?g=mfq3<3: qft q retffr q ft t i * i 3?3*[ 3 Kt 43 nfiicm mi

35*i #RTOiqt5Rgq^ip^ |$| ^R%<fiR^f]4 33lft TOf

3WR3T: Itol 3l ft pR T5 Hlr4l 3Wgqff^H3^IHldMfo^[rt Id I 3 ■JEf*
wt»wft 3$333*n§^ ri ftftaifr t m 33 3d3fcd1

ro 1 4t 3 *rf mi

iui tng^i-ilft 3i wif3 r * 1 3 ?w?r 333 i4r: 3m ywRmftcjH,
iri 3&33ft3>i3iraHr4: TOft3f$F3K3?r RM33nftsr i^erI^hr
irik 3 r$i sRwcflTdSrawiKraftw $ 33 * 31 : uftf?f ?mftg
lJl3tftf33:l3tft3tf3?iS3lft RV9|^|fti*ra^H:^gft Rd lft>3»3ft3I
lft3t 3$3$g R i% m i 3? 3#jfe3n333i3&4 eqrircfagft^ifa
r o i qj ‘^gNlferw^ilqqsft 33 ft <rt: sforer ggRfati u^ift«iRi
r^i 3rora?f r^i ^ PwRii4

HfcgwiRf ^ Wft?T: R*l Wl

Engllsh-Sanskrtt
exercises: nagarl key

308

ggotiHi ^ ^ RM <ft:

^NiqwjihiRu (fluuKiy) TRT 1 *T*ffaurfrf <W«q»d3iS^I*i *RRf: R$l ^

iWWMjj d^MR »iR*M TOT

f^r rvs i ^ Hi s s# snraH ' a^fPwRi R4 1 *rafa

TOftjJoU H WNl f«lW$ TOlft rIs^II^rI HHPiJH&qtf: IR % II

Exercise 14b ^fRr^ 3#r *Mi-q><R i «i TO?fcT r i gfr ^ 1%
McjR«l4>iim«iRW4RiTK: R I ^MTO ^ c#i?IW*t *JTW
*«wwi ciim^h, R 1 srw ^w)<ti!y<'iffii ix 1 $4

^ ^ wrwrtot: m 1 ftg^r ^ w di^wwwi*^ awtfqc^ \ii
awrat WKqWflq^U^m : IVsl taRR> ^dlHWHRfa:

*WIWI{{4> |<il ^ ^(%#CCTPr

mi s^rar fc>%*pr: fiwgqitiflpf R*i??q|^fW^gi5q3lftr

^yi^^Rs^qjuDm^lq^ R 3 I dc^>d) R* l¥

frcT <J»m^ 'JHHI&I fllTOPFnfifaiOT H #PFW^R^ RH I f»?R

tot Rrffcrafafii jtRtt<to<I r<i

Vi^n u l ^FTWWrqrrerer: fTOTOt fedcRS R is I a?WdRi TOc^T
fw^'tWl RhTOPi«a*fl*TN<$Rt ^i'Jiidlqd4>: wRlP(<|c«i lqeHi^iRnfq«s<d
ifoi oq#ro^ R<S I 3Tfa TO TOTO* WTO? from

R^ I ^hwHICIRiPIto jjex.eki RigifcT «p«id JTTt TO?*T: hR^ih«« ?Rt
R o I SrqfaTORT <nAqt q ffl8^ I

•J«Rini*)t« % ^PfRiTiPf^q+HW^d ^fipr «I«hh. 1 TOro^i-gr
l^prct foH^lTOT R % I *TCTCR# *ltNRW8# Sfl»ll <RreTO>fo3

Trer r^i *nt *k^*4c) -dr^'KH'^nai'jfcr

Ilflfjkflw#!: R3I ^

TOT TO q #R TTO *#T R* I ?fTT pN I <<w1»to

T: JPIWR FT

T R3Wi^Rl^ II ^ \ li

309

Alphabetical order

Tlie order of the Sanskrit alphabet is a, a, i, I, a, Q, r, r, 1, e, ai, o,
an, m, h, k, kh, g, gh, d, c, ch, j, jh, n, t, th, d, dh, n, t, th, d, dh,
n, p, ph, b, bh, m, y, r, 1, v, s, s, s, h.

The position of anusvara (m) given above applies where the
anusvara is followed by y, r, 1, v, s, s, s or h. But in accordance
with the usual practice of Sanskrit dictionaries, anusvara before
a stop or nasal is given the alphabetical place of the appropriate
class nasal. Thus the word samtosah is treated as if it were san-
tosah. (The latter spelling, which better represents the pronunci-
ation of the word, is in fact possible, though hardly ever found
nowadays in printed texts.) In looking up a word containing
anusvara, therefore, the anusvara should be converted mentally
into a nasal consonant wherever this is possible.

A similar principle applies in the case of visarga (h): hs, hs and
hs occupy the position of ss, ss and ss respectively. In practice,
however this will cause comparatively little difficulty.

Gender

Substantives ending in a are given as ending in ah if masculine
and am if neuter. Substantives ending in a or 1 should be assumed
to be feminine. The gender of nouns ending in -in and -tr is not
normally specified, since these may, if appropriate, be treated as
adjectival (with feminines in -ini and -tri).

Verbs

While a point has been made of quoting the present tense of all
verbs listed, it should be mentioned that present stem formations

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

310

may sometimes be far less common than the particular form,
such as past participle or absolutive, which has led to the inclu-
sion of the verb in the Vocabulary.

3t^fH ahguli f. or ahguli
finger toe

3T a negative prefix not,
no, un- etc.

3T^J3> amsukam cloth,
garment

akathayat 3rd sg.
imperf. para, of kath

a:krt>:artha [whose
aim is unachieved:]
unsuccessful

aksa-mala

[garland of Eleocarpus
seeds:] rosary

aWft aksaram syllable,
written character

3PT: agah [not moving:]
mountain

3PTRST: Agastyah pr. n.
agni m. fire

3W agram front, top, tip

3nRT: agratah in front of

(gen.)

3TO agham evil, impurity
a6k (X ankayati)
brand, stamp

31^: ankah hook; curve of

body, lap

an gam limb, division
ahgi~kr make a
part, subordinate; adopt,
accept, promise

angurlyaka m./n.
ring (for finger)

angusthah thumb,
big toe

3lf*H a:cira [not long:]
soon

adr^t after a short

while

auftfar a arena within a
short while

3RR* : ancalah border
(of dress)

3151 fH anjali m. joined
hands

atavi f. forest

3nt: atah from this, hence,
for this reason; ata eva
[precisely from this:] that
is why

3lfir ati prefix excessive(ly),
extreme(ly), too, very etc.
atikrpana

extremely niggardly

3rf?Rfii^ ati + kram (I atikra-
mati) go beyond; trans-
gress, go against

3iRisr»i-c atikranta past,
bygone

stfilRilT atucira very long

3rfrrfsi atithi m. guest;
atithi-satkarah honouring
of guests, hospitality

anfirereur ati:daruna [very]
dreadful

3lf^t<r ati:dlpta exception-
ally brilliant

ati:duhkha-

samvegah extreme pangs
of pain

atipatah lapse,

neglect

ajfinjfir atibhtuni f. culmi-
nation, excess

3»Rihi 5| ati_matra [beyond
measure:] excessive
ati + vah earn.
(ativahayati) spend
(time)

atisaya surpassing
srfflyft ati + si (II atisete)
surpass, triumph over

ati + srj (VI atisrjati)
bestow, lavish

atlta [ati + ita gone
beyond:] past
3l^«r atlva excessively,
intensely

a*t*RT aty_anta [beyond
limit:] excessive, extreme,
intensely, ‘terribly’

SHreufen atyahitam calamity,
disaster

ara atra here, in this, on
this; on this matter about
this

atrabhavant His
Honour here

atrabhavatl Her
Honour here, this Lady
3W atha introductory or
connecting particle now,
next, then

ararar atha va or rather but
no, but

a:darsanam not
seeing

a:d&ra-vartin
situated not distant
(from)

3qj<T adbhuta extraordi-
nary

3W adya today, now
aw JPjfif adya prabhrd
from today onward
art? adri m. rock, moun-
tain

awwi^ adhastat beneath
(gen.)

aifira? adhika additional,
superior

aifeefiTW adhikaranam
grammatical relationship
3lfllefilT: adhikarah autho-

rity, responsibility, office,
job

adhi + gam (I adhi-
gacchati) find, obtain,
receive; realise, perceive
3rf*Pffir adhipati m. over-
lord, ruler

3Tftre^ adhi + ruh (I adhi-
rohati) ascend, mount

311

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

312

aiRlWi} adhisthatr m.
superintending, at the
head of

adhi (adhi + i) (II
adhlte) study; caus.
(adhyapayati) teach
3r§3T adhuna now
3Ttftg^sT adhoynukha down-
faced, with face bent down
30WHW adhyayanam study-
ing, study

37*3^733: adhyavasayah

resolution

ansrafarar adhyavasita re-
solved, accomplished, com-
pleted

3temei«1 adhy + ava + so
(IV adhyavasyati) resolve,
decide, accomplish
3T6gfa7T adhyusita (p.p. of
adhi + vas) inhabited
373*333 an:adhyayanam
freedom from study, (aca-
demic) holiday
373*33333: an : adhyavasayah

irresolution, hesitation
373313*^ amantaram [with-
out interval:] immediately
3 hm<,I 4 an:aparaddha un-
offending, innocent
373$: anarthah reverse,
disaster

3731^73 an&drtya absolutive
not heeding, without refer-
ence to

373T3T77 an;3yasa [in which
there is no exertion:] not
strenuous

a:nimitta without

cause

37f3W: anilah wind, breeze

37f3g amista undesired, un-
pleasant, dreadful

anu + kamp (I anu-
kampate) sympathise
with, pity

anukarin (anu + kr
imitate) imitative
3T3«f>H anukula favourable
373*3^ anu + gam (I anugac-
chati) follow, attend
3735^ anu + grah (IX
anugrhnati) favour
3733?: anugrahah favour,
kindness

anucarah compan-
ion, attendant

STJST : anujah [bom after:]
younger brother
37353 anu + jfia (IX anujauati)
allow, give leave, assent
3737113 : anutapah remorse
373^37 : an:utsekah [non-

arrogance:] modesty
3T3Jrf? anu + pra + hi (V anu-
prahinoti) send (someone
after something), despatch
3733P3^ anu + bandh (IX
anubadhnati) pursue, im-
portune

anu + bho (I anubha-
vati) experience, undergo,
‘reap, enjoy’

anu + mantr (X anu-
mantrayate) consecrate
with mantras, bless

anuyayin (anu +
ya attend) attendant upon
anu + yuj (VII anu-
yunkte) question, examine
3I3TPT: anurSgah passion,
love

313^ anu + rudh (IV anu-
rudhyate) adhere to, com-
ply with (acc.)

anu_rupa conforma-
ble, suitable, proper appro-
priate

anu + lip (VI an-
ulimpati) anoint

anulepanam oint-
ment

3*33*1, anu + vrt (I anuvar-
tate) go after, attend
upon

3T3VW: anusayah conse-

quence, repentance, regret
313<3T anustha (anu + stha)

(I anutisthati) carry out,
perform, act, do
3*3«3R anusthanam carry-
ing out, [performance of
task:] ‘duties’

3>3W anu + smr (I anus-
marati) remember

3t^3> an:eka [not one:]
several

3^3: antah end, boundary,
final (syllable of word)
3Rf:3T antahpuram
women’s quarters (of
palace), harem
3P3T antaram interval,
juncture, difference; -an-
taram ifc. a different,
another

3RTn<*f3. antarratman
m. soul within, internal
feelings

SRlftiT antarita (p.p. of
antar + i go between)
hidden, concealed
3Rtajfi93. antevasin [resi-
dent] disciple
3 Rf andha blind
3RT anya pron. other,
another; else, different
3p!J?R^IT3, anyatarasy&m
(gram.) optionally
SFSGT anyatra elsewhere, on
etc. another

3TSISJT anyatha otherwise,
in other circumstances

anvamamsta 3 rd
sg. Utm. s-aorist of anu +
man ‘assent, permit’

3P3U: anvayah succession,
lineage, family

anvita attended by,
full of

313

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

Sanskrtt-English vocabulary

314

anvis (anu + is) (I an-
vesate) look for; search
iot, enquire

anvesin searching
for

3PT3iTT: apakSrah doing
harm, injury, ruination
apakarin ( from
apa kr ‘do harm’) har ming ,
offending

apa + kram (I apakra-
mati) go away, withdraw
SftRST apatyam offspring
3PP5sr a:pathya unwhole-
some

amwichlf^ apathya-karin
doing what is inimical (to
king), traitor

apadesah pretence,
pretext

SPTft apa + nl (I apanayati)
remove, take away

apanodanam driv-
ing away

3PT3I apa + ya (II apayati)
go away, depart
3PIT apara other, different
anTTrB aparakta disaffected,
disloyal

3PTTPT: aparagah disaffec-
tion, disloyalty
3PTO5 aparaddha having
offended, guilty
3Wiy : apar&dhah offence,
guilt

apara dhin offend-
ing, guilty

3HlfT3^T: arpariklesah
lack of vexation

3ni*liqT a:paryapta inade-
quate

apavSdin decrying

spraiftff apavSrita hidden

anrai^f apavahita p.p. of
cans, of apa + vah ‘carry
off’

3TM5WH, apasyat 3 rd sg. im-
perf. para, of drs ‘see’

apasarpanam get-
ting away, escape
apa + srp (I

apasarpati) get away, es-
cape

3 PT? apa + hr (I apaharati)
carry off

apa + hnu (II apahnute)
conceal

a-mni a:papa without sin,
guiltless

arfb api enclitic also,
too, as well, alike, and;
even, though, however;
gives indefinite sense to
interrog. pronouns ; api
non-enclitic marks a
question

Sift api nama with opt.
could it be that?, if only!

3 PJTI: apupah cake: see
dandapfipika

315

atqjf aipOrva unprece-
dented, strange
artsfT apeksl consideration,
regard

attfct apeta (apa + ita) de-
parted; free from (abl.),
lacking

ayramadin [not
negligent:] vigilant

apsaras f. nymph
(of heaven)

3lfV5IT abhi + ghra (I abhi-
jighrati) smell

abhijna knowing,
conversant with (gen.)

abhi + druh (IV
abhidruhyate) do
violence to

srfWT abhi + dha (HI abhi-
dadhati/ abhidhatte) tell,
say, speak

abhidhanam appel-
lation, name; speaking,
stating

abhi + nand (I abhi-
nandati) rejoice in, greet
with enthusiasm, prize

abhinivista con-
• •

centrated, intent
aiftlHHI: abhipr§yah incli-
nation, will, intention
aifaM abhipretam [thing
willed:] wish

abhi + bhfi (I abhibha-
vati) overpower

3tfa*RT abhimata respected,
honoured

abhiyukta diligent
abhiyoktr attacker
srf^ihT: abhiyogah intent-

ness, preoccupation; assault,
attack

abhi + las (I abhi-
lasati) wish for, crave,
hanker after

arfMvlTO : abhilasah craving,
passion for (loc.)

abhilasin de-
sirous, anxious

abhi + likh (VI ab-
hilikhati) draw (picture)
abhi + vad cans.
(abhivadayate) greet

abhi + vrt (I abhivar-
tate) approach, go to-
wards, make for
arfasro abhivyakta mani-
fest, visible

abhisyand (abhi +
syand) (I abhisyandate)
flow

wfvtfRr abhisamdhi m.
agreement, condition

abhihita p.p. o/’ab-

hidha

abhipsita desired;
abhlpsitam [thing de-
sired:] desire

abhisu m. rein,
bridle

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

316

abhut 3 rd sg. aorist of

bb£i

3TWR?T abhyasta practised,
familiar

3TO abhram cloud
3TUT: Amarah author of
the Amarakosah

amatyah minister
(of king)

spft augj^aaigRT ami, amum,
amusya forms of ossa
OTpr amrtam nectar, am-
brosia

3P3T amba mother
3TOT3l(^g5T Amba, Ambika
pr. n.

artp^ ayam pron. this, this
one, he; here (is), see,
hereby

a:yasas n. [non-
fame:] disgrace
•adf^T ayi ha!, ah!
ai^K a:yukta [not right:]
wrong

afl^ a:yuj uneven, odd
aralsm Ayodhya name of a
city (Oudh)

3T% aye ah!, oh!

aranyam forest
arft ari m. enemy
WvWft Arundhati pr. n.
3rd: arthah matter busi-

ness; object, purpose, point,
aim, interests; meaning,
sense; wealth, property

3rd*^ -artham ifc. for the
sake of, in order to
aTsrfnTT^TTCT: arth>-antara-
nyasah (lit. crit) Substa-
ntiation

aiyfijRl arth>-apatti f.

(lit. crit.) Strong Presum-
ption

3lfsfc^ arthin having an
object, wanting, petitioning
arafanf : arth>-otsargah ex-

penditure of money
ajtf: ardhah half (portion)
SldlM: ardharatrah mid-

night

snNfir arpayati cans, oft
3fi^ arh (I arthati) be wor-
thy; be able, ‘aspire to’;
should, ought

Sli? arha deserving, merit-
ing; proper, deserved
3 )vi«b<ui alamkaranam or-
nament

3H*K: alamkarah orna-
ment; (lit. crit.) embellish-
ment, literary figure
3Tvt^> alam + kr (VIII
alamkaroti) adorn,
embellish

STvl^ alam enough; + instr.
enough of, do not etc.-,

+ inf. capable of
3TFT alpa small
3ie|ct>IVI: avakasah space,
scope

ava + gam under-
stand, learn, know; sup-
pose, consider

ava + gam cans, (av-
agamayati) procure
ara^ ava + gah (I avaga-
hate) plunge into, bathe
in (acc.)

arau?: avagrahah obstacle,
restraint; separation (of
words)

ara^T: avacayah gathering,

picking

araw ava + jfia (IX avajanati)
despise

3ra?T avajna contempt
ara^ ava + tf cans, (avata-
rayati) remove
aratf ava + dhr cans.
(avadharayati) determine,
resolve

ateRW avanata (p.p. of ava
+ nam) bent down
ara?Rf: avayavah portion,
particle, member
ararc^ ava + ruh cans.
(avaropayati) cause to de-
scend, dismiss from office
ajcMM, ava + lamb (I avalam-
bate) cling to, hold on to;
adopt (position)
ara#^ ava + lok (X aval-
okayati) see, look at
ara^PT avalokanam look-
ing at, gazing on

a Wvilfa HT Avalokita pr.n.
aivasa powerless,
helpless

avasyam necessarily
avasarah opportu-
nity, occasion, right mo-
ment, time (for)
arsra^ avasare at the right
moment, opportune

avasanam termina-
tion, end, conclusion

avasita (p.p. of ava
+ so) terminated, over; ful-
filled

317

1

3WW1 ava + stha stay (in a
state), remain

3TSTWT avastha state, condi-
tion, period of life

avahittham, avahittha
dissimulation

3raTt^ avap (ava + ap) (V ava-
pnoti) obtain, acquire

a:vighna unhindered
arvidvan ignorant
arfspRt: a:vinayah lack of
breeding, discourtesy

a:vipratipanna
not uncertain, entirely fixed
: arvisayah [non-

sphere:] matter beyond the
scope (of)

aveks (ava + Iks) (I ave-
ksate) watch, watch over
a:vyabhicarin
undeviating, unswerving

Sanskrlt-Engllsh vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

318

ai'VWUl a;sarana without
refuge, helpless
aiVKUii assaranya without
refuge, helpless

a:sesa [without
remainder:] complete,
whole, all

3l^il<*: asokah asoka-tree

3WNR a:sobhana unpleas-
ant, awful

asru n. tear

3T*|gnr asru-mukha tearful-
faced

3W: asvah horse

as (II asti) by exist;
may express ‘have’ etc.

a:samtosah dissatis-
faction

3RPTsf a:samartha incapable
SRnnotr arsambhavya in-
credible

3RIWR5 a:samyak wrongly
3Tg asu m. breath; pi. life
3TCJT: asurah demon
anft asau pron. that
ari astram missile, weapon
3TWT: asthah znd sg. aorist
para, of stha
3R?n% a:sthane not in
place, misplaced, inappro-
priately

3Fg£Z arsphuta unclear il-
legible

asmat stem of ist pi.
pron. vayam

a:svastha:sarira
[whose body is not well:]
[physically] unwell
ar^nOT a:svasthyam dis-
comfort, illness
3T^ ah see aha
ajjj^ ahan n. irreg. day
aif : 3$: -ahah, -ahnah ifc.

for ahan

ahamahamika

rivalry

3fijt aho oh!, what a—!;
aho bata oh alas!

an a + abl. up to, until
aUchufcifd akarnayati
(denom.) give ear; Usten to
airaiT: akarah form, ap-
pearance, (facial) expressioi
airantf akasam ether, air,
sky

an^vT akula confused
anfwqftr akulayati
(denom.) confuse, disturb
an^tfty akulrbha grow
confused

anfJefrjjT akull~bhuta
[being] in confusion

akrti f. appearance,
figure

3TIfW a + krs (I akarsati)
drag, draw

ama?^ 3 + krand (I akran-
dati) cry out, scream,
lament

3TR3IT a + khya (H akhyati)
declare, tell, announce

3JTSUT akhya appellation,
name; :akhya [having as a
name:] called, known as

SIPP^ a + gam (1 agacchati)
come, approach, arrive

a + gam caus. (agamay-
ati) acquire

3JPPT: agamah arrival, ac-
cession

3TFPR agamanam coming,
arrival

am a + ghra (I ajighrati)
smell

acakranda 3 rd sg.
para. perf. of akrand
a + car (I acarati)
conduct oneself, act, do

3irai4: acaryah teacher

a + c ^ad (X acchaday-
ati) hide, conceal

3II3IT ajna command, order

3H5JT a + jfia caus. (ajnSpay-
ati) order, say (authorita-
tively)

3TfiW: atapah heat (esp. of
sun)

3lfi*RT : atma-jah [bom of
oneself:] son

anwsiT atma-ja daughter
atman m. self, myself
sio*

aurqkv* atyantika (cf.
atyanta) perpetual, lasting

3TtM Atreyl pr. n.

adarah care, respect,
trouble, anxiety (to do
something); adaram kr take
care (to)

3TT3T a + da (m adatte)
take, take hold of, bring
anfe adi m. beginning
anf? ;adi etc.
arrf^ a + dis (VI adisati)
order, proclaim, direct
3H? a + dr (IV adriyate)
heed, respect, defer to,
refer to

arrsfrf: adesah command,
order; instruction
3M adya initial, first,
earliest

arohnr: adhoranah ele-
phant-driver

a + nl (I anayati) bring
3Tppnftra> : anuyatrikah
escort

ap (V apnoti) obtain,
get

airo^ a + pat (I apatati)
occur, befall, appear sud-
denly, present oneself
atnrtR apatanam occurrence,
(sudden) appearance, arising
3ircrf%r apatti f. (from a + pad)
happening, occurrence
a + pad (IV apadyate)
atttain, come to, happen,
occur

Sanskrft-Engllsh vocabulary

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

320

apanna:sattva [to
whom a living creature has
occurred:] pregnant
3?pfte : apidah, apidakah
chaplet, crest

aWdT apta trustworthy '
arnrs a + prach (VI aprcchati)
take leave of, say goodbye
3lT*RiiT abharanam orna-
ment, jewel, decoration, in-
signia

a + mantr (X amantra-
yate) salute; take leave of
amodah scent
3mnrr ayatanam abode,
[abode of god:] temple
airar a + ya (H ayati) come
3 h«i«: ayasah effort, exer-
tion

ayudham weapon
ayus n. life
ayusmant long-
lived, (of respect) sire
etc.

auratarar Ayodhyaka inhab-
iting Ayodhya
3UTH, a + rabh (I arabhate)
undertake, begin, start
arambhah begin-
ning, undertaking
3HTW: aramah pleasure;
pleasure-grove, woodland
a + ruh (I arohati) as-
cend, climb, mount, get in
(to chariot)

a + ruh cans, (aropay-
ad) cause to mount, raise
on to; with Mam impale
3TT# arta afflicted, oppressed
snft arti f. affliction, dis-
tress

Irdra moist, tender
3TpJ arya noble, honourable
3TT^: aryah Your/His
Excellency/Honoui; sii; etc.

: arya-putr ah
[son of] nobleman; voc.
noble sir

3JRlf arya noble lady.
Madam, etc.

alaksya discernible,
just visible

a + likh (VI alikhati)
draw (picture)
cufwg- a + ling (I alidgati)
embrace

a + lok (X alokayati)
gaze, look at

auraRI: avasah dwelling,
house

a + vid caus. (aveday-
ati) make known, tell
avir~bhu become
manifest, reveal oneself
avis~kr make
manifest, reveal
sn^I: avegah alarm,
agitadon

3n^?T: avesah attack (of
emotion)

a + sadk (I asadkate)
feat, doubt, suspect, be afraid
3M¥l$r dsadkd apprehen-
sion, fear
3IWI asa hope

asis f. irreg. prayer;
benediction

asirvadah bless-
ing, benison

3rra*f: asramah hermitage;
more widely one of the four
stages of life (of which en-
tering a hermitage is the
third)

aUPSWWi asrama-padam
[site of] hermitage
anftr a + sri (I asrayati/asray-
ate) resort to, take shelter
with (acc.)

asritya [having re-
sorted to:] at, in, by
3*1*5^ a + svas cans, (asva-
sayati) cause to breathe
freely, comfort, console
3JT*arnt: asvdsah [breathing
freely:] feeling of comfort,
optimism

asvasanam com-
forting, consolation
3tn^ as (II aste) sit, stay,
remain

3II4M* asakta fastened,
fixed, occupied
Strafe asakti f. adherence,
intentness (on)

3tre^ a + sad caus. (asaday-
ati) reach, overtake; find,
acquire

stTCR as an am seat, couch
3tra?T asanna near; ifc. be-
side

snife, aslt 3 rd sg. imp erf.
of as ‘be’

a + skand (I askan-
dati) leap upon, attack
3tT? aha ( 3 rd sg. para. perf.

of ah ‘say’) says, said
3TR5T -ahara ifc. bringei;
carrier

Stt^oi ah ar an am bringing,
fetching

3THTT : aharah fodder
stlfftjffeai: ahitundikah
snake-charmer
3tT§*t ahuya absolutive of
ahve

3tlf a + hr (I aharati) bring,
fetch

3lt| a + hve (I ahvayati)
summon, call

? i (II eti) go
fce3T iccha wish, desire
ftT : itah from here, from
this; in this direction, this
way, over here; itas tatah
hither and thither
?ttT itara other

itaretara mutual,
of/to etc. each other

321

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

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322

ffil iti [thus:] with these
words, with this thought
etc.-, see Chapters 2, 14
and 1 j

ittham in this way, so
itthamibhuta [being
in this way:] such, so
idam n. sg. of ayam
g<u41*t, id&nlm now
indu m. moon
Indrah the god Indr a
g'sMtJfci Indr>-ayudham
[Indra’s weapon:] rainbow
^Psi<i indriyam (organ or
faculty of) sense

iva as it were, as if,
like, as, such as, etc.

is (VI icchati) want,
wish, desire, ‘should like’

33 isu m. arrow
3H istam thing wished, wish
SH'jm: istarjanah the loved

one

?? iha here, in this; in this
world

Iks (I iksate) look
upon, see

^1 Idrsa (/. I) of this
kind, such

Ipsita desired,
wished for

Isat slightly
^ Ih (I lhate) long for,
desire

ukta p.p. 0 / vac
ugra fierce, grim
3fa<T ucita suitable, appro-
priate, proper right

uccal (ut + cal) (I ucca-
lati) move away; rise
ucchvas (ut + svas)

(II ucchvasiti) breathe,
bloom, blossom

: ucchvasah breath
ut prefix up etc.
utaho or? (marking
alternative question )

3<a> utka eager, longing for
dcfcuai) utkanthate denom.
long for, be in love with
(gen.)

ut + ksip (VI utksipati)
throw up, raise
drUm utkhata (p.p. of
ut + kha) dug up, uprooted
3IW uttama uppermost,
supreme, top

uttam>:angam
[highest limb:] head
uttara following,
subsequent, further; upper,
superior to, above
3rR uttar am answer, reply;
consequence, prevalent,
result

331T uttha (ut + stha)

(I uttisthati) get up
31^ ut + pat ( I utpatati)
fly up

4<qRl utpatti f. arising
333^ ut + pad (IV utpadyate)
arise

331^ ut + pad cans.
(utpadayati) cause to arise,
cause

-J'dlf&f utpidita squeezed
utsargah pouring
out, expenditure
druRl-t. utsarpin ( from ut +
srp ‘soar up’) high-soaring
utsavah festival
-sruie: utsahah enthusiasm
ilcy* utsuka eager
4 ry<* utsukam eagerness
333» udakam water
33EU udagra intense

udapana mJn. well,
water-tank

33RT: udayah (from ut + i)
rising

33*1, udas (ut + as) (IV uda-
syati) throw up, throw
out, push out

331T udara noble, generous
•3<y-u udas (ut 4- as) (II udaste)
sit idle

■a <9^ udiks (ut + Iks) (I udl-
ksate) look at
-s.Sifn't, udghatin having
elevations, bumpy
3^ udghus (ut + ghus) (I
udghosati) cry out
3^?T: uddesah region, part,
place, spot

44<nr uddharanam (from
ut + hr) tearing out, de-
struction

33J uddha (ut 4- ha) (m
ujjihlte) rise up, start up;
depart

33T udya (ut + ya) (II udyad)
rise up

33R udyanam garden,

park

: udyogah exertion

3fsFT udvigna distressed,
love-sick, melancholy
udvest (ut 4- vest) cans.
(udvestayati) unwrap,
open (letter)

3317 unmatta insane,
crazed

3313*^ un manas eager,
longing

33JW: unmat hah shaking

up, pangs

3>*u^: unmadah insanity
un_mukham [with
the face] upwards

3333* : upakarah help, aid-

ing (of), service

upakarin helper

ally

33^> upa + kr (VHI upaka-
roti) furnish, provide, help

3333*3, upa + kip cans.
(upakalpayad) equip; assign

33fi(P^ upa 4- ksip (VI
upaksipad) hint at

323

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

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324

aviH. upa + gam (I upagac-
chati) go to, come to,
reach, approach
3 TO?: upagrahah concilia-
tion, winning over .

upacdrah m. atten-
dance, treatment, remedy
upa + jan (IV upaja-
yate) come into being, be
roused

3M«IW: upajapah (secret)
instigation to rebellion,
‘overtures’

omwhI upatyaka foothill
upanayanam bring-
ing, carrying

upa -t- nl (I upanayati)
bring, take, carry, bear;
initiate (into adulthood)
upanyasah men-
tion, allusion

3TO3T upapanna suitable,
possible; possessed of
■aMvMd: upaplavah afflic-
tion, molestation

upa + bhuj (VII upab-
huAkte) enjoy, consume,
spend

3TO upamS simile

upayeme 3 rd sg. clttm.
perf. of upa + yam ‘marry’
-34 vh: upayogah use,
utility

upa + ram (I upara-
mate) cease, die

StRPT: uparagah eclipse
3 qfr upari above, on; about,
concerning (gett.); after (abL)
upa + rudh (VII up-
arunaddhi) besiege, in-
vade, molest, hinder

uparodhah obstruc-
tion, interruption
3U<I«R uparodhanam be-
sieging

3TOTH, upa + labh (I upalab-
hate) acquire, ascertain,
discover learn

upa + vis (VI up-
avisati) sit down
3tr^J upa + sru (V upasrnoti)
hear of, learn of

upa + slis cans.
(upaslesayati) cause to
come near; bring near
3TOTO?: upasamgrahah
embracing; collecting;
looking after

dmivi upasadanam re-
spectful salutation

upa + sr (I upasarati)
go up to, approach
3MWI upa + stha (I upati-
sthate) stand near, be at
hand; (upatisthati) attend
TOW upa + stha cans, (up-
asthapayati) cause to be at
hand, bring near
TOR upasthanam atten-
dance

-aMgfl upahata struck, hurt,
killed

33$r<: upaharah offering
up, sacrifice

33$ upa + hr (I upaharati)

offer; offer up, sacrifice
331*413: upOdhyayah
teacher; preceptor
3313: upayah means, way,
expedient

331353 uparudha p.p. of upa
+ a + ruh ‘mount’

33T<H'H i upa + a + labh (I upa-
labhate) reproach, rebuke,
blame

3313, upas (upa + as) (II
upaste) sit by, wait upon,
honour

3^ upe (upa + i) (II upaiti)
approach, come to
3^ upeks (upa + Iks) (I
upeksate) overlook,
disregard

33t3 upodha (p.p. of upa +
Oh) produced, increased
33 ubha (dual only) both
3T^ uras n. chest, bosom,
breast

3sf?ft UrvasI pr. n.

3"f^ ullaAgh (ut + lahgh)
cans, (ullafighayati) trans-
gress, violate

3?ftr usira m./n. a fragrant
root

3fiRT usita p.p. ofv&s

3>3 odha p.p. of vah
35*^ Ordhvam after (abl.)

W r cans, (arpayati)
transfer hand over
tRot mam debt
safest, rtvij (rtvik) m. priest
rsi m. seer; sage

t^aff eka pron. one, a, only,
alone, single

ekada at one time,

once

335333 eka-vacanam
(gram.) singular (number)
5533 ( 41 ^ ekakin alone
ekadasa (f. I)
eleventh

333, etat n. sg. and stem
form of esah

etavant this much
3)3, edh cans, (edhayati)
cause to prosper; bless
enam enclitic pron.
him, her; it, etc.

eva enclitic particle of
emphasis in fact, really, ac-
tually, exactly, just, only,
entirely, quite, (the) very,
the same, it is . . . that, etc.
333^ evam in this way, like
this, thus, so, you see how
3JT: esah pron. this, this
one, he; here (is), see, here-
with

325

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

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326

ehi ( 2 nd sg. para . im-
perv. of & + 1) come

$praB Aiksvaka (f. I) de-
scended from King Iksvaku

okas n. home

autsukyam eager-
ness, longing

aurasa (f. I) produced
from the breast (uras), be-
longing to oneself

Ausanasa (f. I) orig-
inating from Usanas

afad ausadham medicine

ka suffix sometimes
added to exocentric com-
pounds

3»: kah interrog. pron.
who? what? which?;
kah + api/cit any(one),
any(thing), some(one),
some(thing), a (certain), a few
kaccit I hope that . . . ?
kancnkin m.
chamberlain

o»c<*> kataka m./n. (royal)
camp

kathora hard, full-
grown

<»oU«i4 kathora^garbha
[with foetus full-grown:]
late in pregnancy

3313: kanthah neck, throat
3313:. Kanvah pr. n.

3313 katama pron. which?
353T katara pron. which
(of two)?

katipaya a few
3!^ kath (X kathayati) tell,
relate, say, mention, speak of
333^ kath am how?, in what
way?, what, . . . ?, why, . . . !

katham dt, katham
api somehow, only just
3J3T katha story, talk,
speaking, conversation
*Ri«i kathitam thing spo-
ken, talk, conversation
33?r kada when?

kadhdt sometimes,
perhaps

3R3> kanakam gold

kanyaka, kanya girl,
daughter

33^ kam cans, (kamayate)
desire, love, be in love with
3»35T kam ala m./n. lotus
-kara ifc. making, causing
3>T: karah hand kara-talah
palm of the hand
3*T|f: karahkah skull, ves-
sel, box

3JT3T karanam doing, per-
forming; sense organ
Karala name of a
goddess

33if: karaah ear

opf kartr m. doei^ agent

karman tt. deed, task,
[the work of:] ‘role’

kalakalah distur-
bance, noise

kalatram wife, spouse
Kalahamsakah

pr. n.

g#ra>T kalika bud
35RT: kalpah sacred pre-
cept or practice, rite

kalyana (f. i) fair,
auspicious, beneficial
kavi m. poet, (cre-
ative) writer

kas cit see kah + cit
kasaya astringent,
sharp(-smelling)

kasta grievous, harsh,
disastrous, calamitous
ePEH. kastam alas!

kaku f. tone of voice
»i*ik: kaficanarah moun-
tain ebony

kana one-eyed
«hi<H katara timid, nervous
kadambinl bank
of clouds

kananam forest
kanta ( p.p . of
kam) beloved

kapalikah (repul-
sive) Saiva ascetic
35W: kamah wish, desire,
love

: Kamah, Kama:devah
the God of Love

kamam at will, wil-
fully; admittedly, granted
that, though

kamayisyate 3rd
sg. atm. fut. of kam

kamin loving, lover
ofiPTOT : kayasthah scribe,
letter-writer

karanam reason,
cause; instrument, means
karin doing,

doer

tPIoR? kartsnyam totality;
kartsnyena in full
karpanyam
wretchedness

karmukam bow
karyam task, duty,
affair, business, matter
3»!?T: kalah time, right
time, occasion

kala-ksepah, kala-
haranam wasting of time,
delay

kavyam poetry, (cre-
ative) literature

kasi name of city
(Banaras)

(*««-<?) kimvadantl
rumour

kim ca moreover
kim cit something;
somewhat, slightly

327

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

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328

faSjJ kirn tu but
HBfag kim nu khalu can
it be that?

UPt. lain {«. sg. of kah)
what?; why?; may mark a
question; + instr. what is the
point in? what business
(have you etc.) with?

Gtmft kim api something;

somewhat, at all
fcfofo kim id in what
terms?; with what in mind?
why?

kim uta, kim punar
[what then of:] let alone
kiyant how much?
fevf kila it seems that, ap-
parently, I believe

kidrsa (f. i) of what
kind? of what kind! what (a)!

klrt (X klrtayad) de-
clare

ku: pejorative prefix ill
kutumbam house-
hold, family

kutumbin m.
householder family-man
kuttnala rn.ln. bud
kundalam earring,
ear-ornament

kutah from where?
from what?; in what direc-
tion, whereabouts?

kutuhalam curiosity,
interest

kup caus. (kopayati)
make angry, anger

ku:mad f. ill thought,
wrong-headedness

: kumarah (well-born)
young man, son; prince;
Your/His Highness

; Kumarah the Prince
(name of Skanda, god of
war)

kumarakah young
man, son

kumarl girl, daugh-
ter princess
3pT: kumbhah pot

kulam family, dynasty,
house; herd, swarm (of bees)
kula-vidya learning
that is [in a family:] heredi-
tary

3£?T: Kusah pr.n.

kusalam welfare
kusumam flower
blossom

Kusumapuram
‘flower-city’ name of
Pcltaliputra

: kusum>-ayudhah

[the flower-weaponed:] God
of Love

fjcT kulam bank, shore
^ kr (Vffl karoti) do, act,
see to, conduct (affairs);
make, cause, contrive; forms
verbal periphrasis with

abstract or action nouns, e.g.
avajnam kr feel contempt,
despise

spSF krcchram hardship;
krcchrat with difficulty
krtam + instr. have
done with

^«nir krta-jna, krta-vedin
conscious of [things done
for one:] debt, grateful,
obliged

^fqranr krtajna'ta gratitude
krtaysunya [who
has done meritorious things
(in a previous life):] fortu-
nate, lucky

krtin [having some-
thing done:] satisfied, ful-
filled

krpana niggardly,
wretched

krpanah sword,
(sacrificial) knife; krpana;
pani cf. Chapter iy, p. no
krpalu compassion-
ate

krsna black

krsna:sakuni m.
[black bird:] crow

kip (I kalpate) be
suitable, conduce to, turn to
(dat.)

kip caus. (kalpayati)
arrange, prepare

ketu m. flag, banner

^>¥14: Kesavah name of the
god Krsna

kesaram hair; filament
kaimutikamya-
yat [from the principle
kim uta ‘let alone’:] a for-
tiori

afrl: kopah anger
aftsfft ko >pi see kah + api
komala tender
<*i)H(lj5H : kolahalah clam-

our

uft?T: kosah, kosah treas-
• * • •

ury, resources, wealth
«1g<* kautukam curiosity
kaumudl moonlight;
day of full moon

kriya doing, perform-
ing, effecting, action; rite
sift krl (IX krlnati) buy
aft^ krld (I krldati) play
aft? : krodhah anger
aftft krauryam cruelty
IF kva where? in what?

TPH, kvan caus. (kvanayati)
[cause to] sound
8FT : ksanah instant of
time, second, moment

ksatriyah [member
of] warrior [caste]

ksam (I ksamate) be
patient, endure, tolerate
$RT: ksayah destruction,
ruin

329

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

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330

ksatra (f. 1) relating to
the ksatriya caste
fijRluRf ksiti-pati m. [lord
of earth:] king
iTO, ksip (VI ksipad)
throw; waste (time)
fsfro ksipra swift, quick
ksipratkarm

[swift-acting:] precipitate
kslra-vrksah fig-

tree

^ ksud (I ksodati) tram-
ple, tread

3J3 ksudra mean, common,
low

ksudh f. hunger
$1? ksetram field
%?: ksepah (from ksip)
throwing, wasting

^sT kham hole; vacuum;
sky, heaven

khadyotah firefly
khalu confirmatory
particle indeed, of course,
after all, certainly, don’t
forget; na khalu certainly
not, not at all
Tsl?: khedah exhaustion
khel (I khelati) play

^ -ga ifc. going
?: gah the letter g; (in
prosody ) heavy syllable
1 IfT Ganga the Ganges

TO: gajah elephant
”1 gadu m. goitre,

TO, gan (X ganayati) count
J NHI gan ana counting
'ifiil*! ganika courtesan
TO gata (p.p. of gam) gone;
ifc. gone to, [being] in, con-
cerning, etc.

TOT : gandhah scent, smell,
fragrance

TO, gam (I gacchati) go, at-
tain

TO gam caus. (gamayati)
spend, pass (time)

TO? gamanam going

garlyams impor-
tant, considerable; wor-
thy/worthier of respect
TO?: garbhah womb, foe-
tus; ifc. containing

garbhin [having foe-
tuses:] productive of off-
spring

TO gal (I galati) drip, slip
away

TO? gahanam dense place,
thicket

TOT gatram limb, body,
‘person’

TOOT gatha verse ( esp . in the
arya metre)

?lfTO gamin going
TOfTOT garhasthyam being a
householder

fTO gir f. speech, voice, tone

ftft giri m. mountain
Mhr glta p.p. of gai
dlw glta, glti f. song
’JOT: gunah merit, quality,
worth; strand, string; ‘-fold’,
e.g. tri;guna threefold
31, gup ( denotn . pres, gopa-
yad) guard; hide
33 guru heavy, important;
m. teacher, elder; senior;
guardian

3?r guhya [to be con-
cealed:] secret

’[t grham (m. in pi.) house,
home, household; quarters,
chamber

’ppiR: grha-janah family

(wore particularly wife)
grhamedhin m.,
grhasthah householder
grhini housewife, wife
grhita p.p. of grah
3$3I«f grhlt>iartha [by
whom the fact has been
grasped:] aware
4 gai (I gayad) sing
tit go m. ox; f. cow; go-
kulam herd of cows, cattle
gopah cowherd
dldi gopanam conceal-
ment, hiding
m?pft Gautaml pr. n.
dfrcT gauravam high es-
teem, regard, duty of re-
spect [towards an elder]

31, grah (IX grhn&ti) seize,
grasp, take, receive, accept
3iuf grahanam seizing,
taking

313: gram ah village

37: ghatah pot
3I33>: ghatakah execu-
tioner

3133% ghatayati caus. of
han ‘strike, kill’

31. ghus (I ghosati) pro-
claim

3)3011 ghosana proclama-
tion

333 ghranam smelling,
(sense of) smell

3 ca enclitic and, in addi-
tion; . . . ca . . . ca both . . .
and . . . , no sooner . . .
than . . .

cakravartin m.
emperor

3$[1, caksus n. eye
3UI3 canda violent
3<p, catur four
3$$ caturtha (f 1) fourth
35:3% catuhjsasti f. sixty-
four

3F33 candana nt./n. san-
dal, sandalwood-tree
33J33I3: Candanadasah

pr. n.

331: candrah moon

331

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

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332

Candraketu m. pr. n:
Candraguptah pr. n.
■elllft+l candrika moonlight
^ car (I carati) move, go
depart; behave, act; do,
effect

caranam m./n, foot;
carana-niksepah [putting
down of feet:] tread
fat* caritam conduct,
deeds ‘story’

vraf carya going about,
riding (in vehicle)

cal (I calati) stir, move,
go away

^|U|<nJ: Canakyah pr. n.

WT cSpa m./n. bow

Camunda name of
the goddess Durga
f^ch)Pta ciklrsitam [things
desired to be done:] intention
ffa^ cit enclitic, gives indef-
inite sense to interrogative
pronouns

fa* cittam thought, mind
Rroqfn dtta-vrtti f. [activ-
ity of mind:] mental
process, thought
fa* dtra variegated
fa* citram picture
fa*fa*T Citralekha pr. n.
fa*!, crnt (X cintayati) reflect,
think (things over), think of
fa*TT cinta thought, worry
fat cira long (of time )

fal^ dram for a long time
far** cirasya, cirat after a
long time

cln>amsukam
[Chinese cloth:] silk
fat ciram strip of bark
(worn by ascetic)

^ cur (X corayati) steal
*|* : cutah mango-tree

dim am powder
fal[ cet enclitic if
faRT cetana consciousness
fan^ cetas n. mind, heart,
intelligence, imderstanding
cest (I cestati, cestate)
move, act, behave (to-
wards), treat (loc.)
fa* cesta conduct, action
fafeit cestitam action

caitraratham pr. n.

sRSPl, chadman n. disguise
chalam fraud, fallacy,
error

3I*T chaya shade
fa^[ chid (II chinatti) cut,
cut out

fa? chidram hole, chink
fa* chinna (p.p. of chid)
cut, divided

chedin cutting out,
removing

3J: jah the letter j; (pro-
sody) the syllables

SRfl jata matted locks (of
ascetic)

SP^ jan (IV jayate) be born,
arise, become

jan cans, (janayati)
cause to arise, cause, beget,
produce, rouse
SPT: janah person, people,

folk; ifc. gives plural or in-
definite sense

SPPT jananam thing pro-
ducing, ‘ground for’

janayitr m. begetter,

father

: Janardanah name

of Krsna

sp*p^ janman n. birth;
janma-pratistha [birth-
foundation:] mother
SPt: jayah conquest

STT3 jaratha old,
decrepit

sfe jalam water
srafif jaladhi m. ocean; the
number four

jagr (El jagarti) be
awake, wake up
strafe Jajali m,, pr. n.

SIRT jata (p.p. of jan) born,
become; jata-karmqn n.
birth-ceremony
snfir jati f. birth

Janakl pr. n.

SJM japyam (muttered)
prayer

i||isj^<3 jambunada (f. 1)
golden

srfe jalam net, lattice, win-
dow

vHIHMK: jalapadah [web-

footed:] goose
fe ji (I jayati) win, con-
quer, beat, defeat
fearer jijnasa desire to
know, wish to determine

jita-kasin flushed
with victory, arrogant
jlv (I jlvati) live, be
alive

jlvah living creature,

soul

41 Rid jlvita alive
sftRlti jivitam life
4lwm josam as (II josam
aste) remain silent
?t -jna ifc. knowing, aware
of, recognising
W jna (EX janati) know,
learn, find out, recognise
3T jna caus. (jnapayati)
make known, announce
?rrj jfiatr knowei; person
to know/vmderstand
fPT jnanam knowledge,
perceiving

jneya ger. o/jM

jy^yams older, elder
jyotis n. light; heav-
enly body; jyotih-sastram
astronomy, astrology

333

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

jyotsna moonlight
jhatiti suddenly, at

once

tac {gram.) the suffix a

<T: tah adverbial suffix

from, in respect of etc.

TO: tatah slop, bank

TO^ tad (X tadayati) strike,
beat

TO, tat n. sg. and stem
form of sah

TO tat connecting particle
then, so

TO: tatah from there, from

that, thereupon, then, and
so, therefore

tauksanam at that
moment, thereupon
TO tatra there, in/on etc.

that, among them
TO^T^TO tatra:bhavant His
Honour [there], that (hon-
ourable) man, the revered
rtsWefift tatratbhavatl Her
Honour [there], that (good)
lady

TOT tatha thus, in such a
way, so

TOlfb tatha >pi even so,
nevertheless, but, yet
TOT tada then, at that time
5RT-IK tadanim (cf. idanim)

then, at that time; tadl-
nlm~tana belonging to
that time, of that period
<rf§5T: taddhitah (gram.)

[‘suitable for that’:] second-
ary suffix

TO tan (Vin tanoti) extend,
stretch

TO tana suffix added to
words denoting time
TORJT tanaya daughter

tan tram framework;
administration; chapter of a
textbook

TITOf, tapas n. (religious)
austerity

TOfiTO, tapasvin practiser
of austerities, ascetic;
wretched, ‘poor’
ddlTO tapo-vanam asce-
tics’ grove

TO tama superlative suffix
most, pre-eminently, very
TOW tamas n. darkness
TO tara comparative suffix
more, notably, particularly
TO taru m. tree; taru-
gahanam thicket of trees,
wood

Ttsfc: tarkah conjecture

tarj caus. (tarjayati)
threaten, scold

trfjj tarhi in that case, then
TOT tala m.In. palm (of the
hand)

tava of you, your; of
yours

<TT ta abstract noun
suffix -ness etc.

Hfit: tatah (one’s own) father

<n^g5T tadrsa (f. 1) (of) such
(a kind), so

<um4I: tapasah ascetic

TITEJcT tambulam betel
di<<* taraka causing to
cross over; rescuing, liberat-
ing

cK<W taraka star; pupil of
eye

tayat («. sg. of tavant)
during that time, for so
long, meanwhile
*13^ tivat enclitic well
now, (now) then, to start
with, now as for—; + pres,
or imperv. (I’ll) just, (would
you) just etc.

tavant that much, so

much

tithi m. f. lunar day
[esp. as auspicious date for
ceremony)

fnfal tuniram darkness
tiro~bbu (I tirobha-
vati) become hidden, van-
ish

#8F tlksna sharp, severe
: tlksna:rasah

[sharp liquid:] poison
tlram bank

tlrtham ford, sacred
bathing-place, pool
3 tu enclitic but, yet, now
ipi? tuccha trifling

tusnim as, tusnim
bhu fall silent
(jwfixru^ tusnim as remain
silent

grfte trtlya third
^ trp caus. (tarpayati)
satisfy

% te (i) worn. pi. m. etc. of
sah, (ii) enclitic dat./gen. sg.
of tvam

fa tena therefore, in that
case

wprcf taiksnyam sharpness
tyaj (I tyajati) aban-
don, quit, leave, give up,
sacrifice

trayam triad; ifc. three
trayl triad, the Three
(Vedas)

tras caus. (trasayati)
make afraid, frighten
fir tri three
(aouvi trhkalam (dvigu
cpd.) [the three times:] past,
present and future
fsRTPTI trkyama [containing
three watches:] night
flrrfterc : tridocanah the

three-eyed (god), Siva
s*u«i<n: Tryambakah name

of Siva

335

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

Sanskrlt-Engllsh vocabulary

336

try;ahah [period of]
three days

tvam abstract noun
suffix - ness etc.

*** tvam ( stent forms tvat
and yusmat) you

tvar (I tvarate) hurry;
caus. tvarayati

tvaritam hurriedly,
quickly, at once

tvadrsa (f. I) like you

3 -da ifc. giving, adminis-
tering

daksina right, on the
right hand; daksinena on
the right, to the right

daksinapathah
southern region (of India),
the Deccan

dan dah stick; punish-
ment; vertical stroke (as
punctuation mark)

danda-nlti f. ad-
ministration of justice, po-
litical science

dandapupika

[the ‘stick-and-cake’ princi-
ple:] reasoning a fortiori
datta p.p. of fa
dadhat nom. sg. m.
pres. part. para, o/dha
dantah tooth
dam-pad m. (Vedic)
lord of the house; du.

husband and wife

daya pity, compassion
darbhah sg. and pi. a
type of (sacrificial) grass
SSfft darsanam (act of) see-
ing, meeting, sight, appear-
ance; sight (of king or god),
audience

SHlWta darsaniya worth
seeing, attractive

darsayati caus. of
drs

darsin seeing
35T dal am petal, leaf
dasa ten

^ dah (I dahad) burn
35. dah caus. (dahayad)
cause to bum

31 da (m dadati) give, be-
stow, direct (gaze)

SlSjramft DaksayanI [daugh-
ter of Daksa:] Aditi
31$ datr giver; granting
3H danam gift, bestowal,
provision (of)

31 dayin giving, admin-
istering

3TtT: darah m. pi. (N.B.
number and gender) wife

3IW daruna cruel

Daruvarman m.,

pr. n.

3T3: dasah slave, servant
3TCff dasl slave girl, servant
girl

dinam day
divasah day
faCT divya celestial

dis (dik) f. direction,
cardinal point, region; pi.
sky, skies

distya [by good
luck:] thank heaven that;

+ vrdh congratulations!
dipika lamp
dipta (dip ‘blaze,
shine’) brilliant
f duhkham sorrow, un-
happiness, pain, distress
dunatman evil-na-
tured, evil, vile

durgam [hard to get
at:] stronghold, citadel;
durga-samskarah prepara-
tion of stronghold, fortifica-
tion

dur:nimittam ill

omen

duribodha difficult to
imderstand

5^^ durrmanas in bad
spirits, miserable

durmanayate
denotn. be miserable

durjlabha hard to ob-
tain, inaccessible

Durvasas m., pr. n.
durjvipakah cruel
turn (of fortune)

dus:cestitam mis-

chievous action

dutusila bad-tem-
pered, irritable

dus caus. (dusayati)
spoil, defile

dusjkara difficult [to
do]

Duhsantah pr. n.

3^ dus pejorative prefix ill,
bad, evil, mis- etc.; difficult to
33. duh (II dogdhi) milk;

(dugdhe) yield milk
3 H 3 duhitr f. daughter
3* dflra far (off), remote;
duram (for) a long way;
diirat from afar; dure at
a distance, far away

durl~bhavantam
acc. sg. m. pres. part, of
durl~bhu ‘be far away’

3® drdha firm
3*1. drs (I pasyati) see,
look/gaze at/on, watch
3*1. drs caus. (darsayati)
show, reveal

3*1. drs f. look, glance
3S drsta p.p. of d rs
3% drsti f. look, gaze
^ : devah god; His/Your
Majesty

devata divinity, god
^9313? devata-grham
[house of god:] temple

deva-padah the feet
( N.B. pi.) of Your Majesty,

337

SanskrK-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

338

honorific for Your Majesty
SjeKFI: Devaratah pr.n.

441 devl goddess; (the)
Queen, Her/Your Majesty
4?I: desah place, country
44 daivam fate, chance,
fortune

4l*41 dogdhrl f. of dogdhr
(doh + tr), agent noun o/duh
dosah fault, demerit,
blemish, sin, offence,
harm

dohadah (pregnant)
longing

4Hpr: dauhitrah daughter's
son, grandson
ifciui dravinam wealth
3gar drastavya ger. of dp
5)?: drohah injury, hostility
jpj dvandvam pair;
dvandva-sampraharah
single combat, duel
gq dvayatn couple, pair;
ifc. two

^ dvar f., dvaram door;

dvara-prakosthah forecourt
fg dvi two

fgj dvigu m. (gram.) nu-
merical compound

dvitlya second, an-
other, a further

dvis (II dvesti) hate
dvis (dvit) m. enemy

SR dhanam wealth, money

dhanus n. bow
spq dhanya lucky

dharmah religious law,
duty, piety

dharma-patnl lawful

wife

9T dha (HI dadhati) put,
hold, wear

qig dhatu m. (primary) ele-
ment; (gram.) root
*ng dhatr creator; supporter
qisft dhatri nurse, foster-
mother

qKuj dharanam (dhr) hold-
ing, wearing

<n^ dhSv (I dhavati) run
41 dhi f. intelligence

dhlmant intelligent,

wise

tf)T dhlra steady, firm, res-
olute, strong

giT dhura pole, yoke, burden
far dhfimra smoke-
coloured, grey
q#: dhurtah rogue
qfR dhuli f. dust
q dhr cans, (dharayati, p.p.
dharita/dhrta) hold, carry,
wear

44 dhairyam steadiness,
firmness, self-control
TO dhyanam meditation,
meditating

sarf% dhvani m. sound;

(lit. crit.) ‘Suggestion’

na not, no, ‘fail to’;

(in comparisons) rather
than, than; na kas dt, na ko
>pi [not anyone]: no one,
nobody

■3f: nah the letter n;

(prosody) the syllables - - -
TIT nagaram, nagari city,
town

^ nadl river
^5 nanu why! well!; (in
objection or qualification)
surely, rather

Nandah pr. n.

Nandanah pr. n.
nam (I namati) bow,
salute

namas n. homage
iH'icnit : namaskarah mak-
ing obeisance

nayanam eye
narah man

■RTRf?T narapati m. king
ifcbfl nalini lotus
^lef nava new, fresh

nava:yauvanam
[fresh] youth

^TRKT natyam acting, drama
TO nam a enclitic by name;
indeed

TOtfa namadheyam appel-
lation, name

TO^ nam an n. name; ifc.
named, called
nan woman

ni + krt (VI nikrntati)
cut up, shred

ni + ksip (VI niksipati)
throw, cast into (loc.);
place, deposit

niksepah (act of)
putting down
ntfisun nikhila entire
pHKStJn nigadayati denom.
fetter bind

f=nr5, ni + grah (IX nigrhnati)
repress, restrain

nighnatl nom. sg. f.
pres. part. para, of ni + han
‘strike’

nija one’s own
Pdiin: nipatah (gram.)

ready-made form, particle
ftgor nipuna clever sharp
nibandhanam bond
PnjRf nibhrta secret, quiet
ftftra nimittam sign, omen;
cause, motive

fTOT niyata constrained;
niyatam necessarily, as-
suredly

ni + yuj (VII niyuAkte)
engage (someone) upon
(loc.), appoint, set to (doing)
PpfhT : niyogah employ-
ment, entrusting

niyojyah servant
fTOirfsT nirunadhmi ist sg.
pres. para, of ni + rudh
‘confine, restrain’

339

Sanskrft-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

340

Pu>r^<* nir_utsuka without
eagerness

ftfc^ nirgam (nis + gam) (I
nirgacchati) go away, re-
tire from (abl.)

ft&I nir_daya pitiless, fierce
ftft 1 ^ nirdis (nis + dis) (VI
nirdisati) designate, specify
Ppfc nirbhara excessive, full
ftfifit nirbhinna blossomed
forth, found out, betrayed
ftuf nirma (nis + ma)(U
nirmati) create, compose
fttrfni nirmanam creation
nirmita created
PkJh, nirvap (nis + vap) (I
nirvapati) sprinkle, offer,
donate

PbJut, nirvarn (nis + vara) (X
nirvamayati) gaze upon
Pidfui nirvanam bliss
ftfcf nirvrta content,
happy, satisfied
Pieufa’t, nivasin living (in),
inhabitant

ftft^ ni + vid caus. (niveday-
ati) report, announce, inform
someone ( datJgen .) of ( acc .),
present someone (acc.)
ftft*^ ni + vis caus.
(nivesayati) cause to settle,
put in place

ftf ni + vr caus. (nivara-
yati) ward off, drive off;
check, restrain

fteR, ni + vrt (I nivartate)
go back, turn back, return
ft^ ni + vrt caus.
(nivartayati) turn back
(trans.)

nivedaka announc-
ing, indicating

ni + sam caus. (nisa-
mayati) perceive, observe
ftilT nisa night
fifatf: niscayah determina-
tion, resolve, certainty
Met nisei (nis + ci)

(V nis-inoti) ascertain,
settle, fix upon

nisidh (ni + sidh)

(I nisedhati) prohibit,
cancel, prevent, check
PitsuH, niskram (nis + kram)

(I niskramati) go out of
(abl.), emerge

Pi'Muul nispanna (p.p of nil
+ pad ‘be brought about’)
completed

ft^ nis prefix without,
-less, etc.

ft nihsaha weak, ex-
hausted

ftftfl nihita p.p. of ni + din
‘place’

it ni (I nayati) lead, guide,
take, carry; + abstract noun
cause a condition in someom
m niti f. conduct, policy,
political science

^ nu khalu enclitic,
stressing interrogative now
(who etc.) I wonder?

nfipura m.ln. (orna-
mental) anklet
TO. nrt (IV nrtyati) dance
TO : nrpah king
lufir nrpati m. king

nrsamsa injurious; m.
monster

% netr leader
netram eye

*)n«i nepathyam area be-
hind stage

RR: nyayah rule, princi-
ple; propriety

TOR nyayya regular, right,
proper

TO¥: nyasah deposit, pledge
TOTfl^* nyasi~kr deposit,
entrust

^T: pah, pakSrah the letter p

TOP pakva cooked, ripe
TOT: paksah wing, ‘flank’,
side

paksa-pStin on the
side of, partial to

pankajam [mud-
born:] lotus

pankti f. row, line
TO^ pac (I pacati) cook,
ripen (trans.); pass, be
cooked, ripen (intrans.)

TOT pafica five

TOPT pahcama (f. 1) fifth
M»c«n Pancavatl name of a
place

TO: patah cloth, robe
TO patu sharp; patlyams
sharper

TO path (I pathati) read
(aloud), study; cite, mention
TOTlfTO panayitr hawker
trftRRT pandita clever;

learned; m. scholar, pandit
TO pat (I patati) fall, fly
TO pat cans, (p5tayati)
cause to fall, drop
mifan, patatrin bird
ilfir pati, m. lord, king;

( irreg .) husband
TO pattram feather; leaf,
petal; leaf for writing,
‘paper’

TO& patni wife

TO: -pathah ( usually ifc.)

path (cf. panthan)

TOT pathya suitable, salu-
tary, regular

TO padam step, footstep,
foot; position, site; word,
member of nominal com-
pound

TO padmam lotus
TOPjj Padma-puram name
of city

TOP^ panthan m. (irreg.)

road, path, way
TO^ payas n. water; juice

341

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

342

tiT para pron. adj. others
another; m. stranger; far;
ultimate, supreme, great,
particularly marked, {+ na)
greater than

param beyond, further
than ( abl .)

TOPS para-tantra under
another’s control, not in
control (of)

TOT paratra elsewhere, in
the next world
tlWc^ paravant under
another’s control; beside
oneself, overwhelmed
paravasa in an-
other’s power; helpless
paraspara mutual;
parasparam one another;
each other

paranc turned the
other way

para + pat (I parap-
atati) approach, arrive
parikarman n.
preparation

pari + klrt (X pariklr-
tayati) proclaim, declare
pari + kip caus.
(parikalpayati) fix, destine
for (dat.)

MftoiyT: pariklesah vexation
pari + ksip (VI
pariksipati) encircle,
encompass

pari + gam (I parigac-
chati) surround, encircle
pari + grah (IX
parigrhnati) accept, adopt,
possess, occupy
mRu?: parigrahah accept-
ance, welcome; possession,
wrapping round, dress

pari + ci (V paricinoti)
become acquainted with,
recognise

parijanah atten-
dant, servant

uR?ihi parijnanam realisation
parinam (pari + nam)
(I parinamati) develop,
turn out (to be)

Hftnpi: parinayah marriage

TlftoiTO: parinamah devel-
opment, outcome
TifTnft parini (pari + nl) (I
parinayati) marry

pari + tus caus. (pari-
tosayati) make satisfied,
reward, tip

paritosah satisfaction
pari + tyaj (I paritya-
jati) give up, abandon
mRrtlHi : parityagah giving
up, sacrificing; liberality

paritrasta frightened
pari + trai (I paritrayate)
rescue, save, protect
MftPterfui parinirvanam
complete extinction

nftUH pari + pal (X paripal-
ayati) guard, preserve,
keep intact

Mf<m pari + plu (I pari- '
plavate) float, move rest-
lessly, tremble

pari + bhuj (VII pari-
bhunakti) enjoy
■'rfrqfir paribhati f. humilia-
tion, defeat

pari + bhrams (IV
paribhrasyate) fall, drop,
slip

’'rftwt, pari + bhram (I parib-
hramati) wander around
Mfritoi: parimalah perfume
parimeya measura-
ble, limited

pari + raks (I

pariraksati) protect, look
after; save, spare

parivahin over-
flowing

t rf^r parivrta surrounded,
having a retinue

pari + vrdh cans.
(parivardhayati) cause to
grow, tend (plants)

parisramah fatigue,
exertion

parisranta exhau-
sted, tired

parisad f. assembly,
audience

parisphuta clear,

distinct

Trfrgt pari + hi passive
(parihlyate) be deficient,
be inferior to (abl.)

parihasah joke,
laughter

pari + hr (I pariharati)
avoid, shun, omit (to do),
resist

parlks (pari + Iks) (I
pariksate) examine, scruti-
nise; p.p. parlksita exam-
ined, proven

mOh parlta encompassed,
overcome

paryat (pari + at) (I
paryatati) wander about

Trifo: paryantah limit, end;
ifc. [having as an end:] end-
ing with, up to

paryapta sufficient,
adequate

parvatah mountain
Parvatesvarah pr. n.
pasu m. animal, sacrifi-
cial animal

vgqfil Pasupati m. [lord of
beasts:] name of Siva

pascat behind, back-
ward; after; afterwards

V«RIPI: pascat:tapah [after-
pain:] remorse

pasyati present of
drs ‘see’

tJT pa (I pibati) drink; cans.

343

Sanskrlt-Engllsh vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

344

(payayati) make to drink
UTS : pakah cooking;

ripeness, fulfilment
^113: p&thah recitation,
reading; part (in play)

Hlftt pini m. hand
HlfiWrU pandityam learning,
scholarship

MWcfe pStakam [causing to
fall:] sin, crime
Ul(H J®tin falling, flying
Uni patram vessel, recepta-
cle; worthy recipient; actor;
pStra-vargah cast (of play)
ifR: padah foot
HRiT: padapah [drinking
by the foot:] tree

pada-mQlam [foot-
root:] feet (in deferential
reference to person)
imr papa evil, bad, wicked;

m. villain; n. wickedness
HKidfl: paravatah pigeon
paras arin wander-
ing mendicant

; parthivah king,
ruler

'wMl Parvatl pr. n., wife of
Siva

ITT# parsvam flank, side
pal (X palayati) pro-
tect

pindah ball of rice,
ritual offering to ancestors

ftiwmRl^ pindapatin m.
mendicant

fag pitr m. father; du. par-
ents

pipilika ant
pld (X pidayati)
squeeze, oppress, torture,
grieve

iftST pltfe oppression, af-
fliction

dfcf pita p.p. ofp& ‘drink’
pumilifiga having
masculine gender

pumvant (gram.) mas-
culine

pums m. ( irreg .) man,
male, masculine
g*T3: pumgavah bull
giwft® pundarlkam lotus
guafi*: Pundarlkah pr. n.
g<Ji| punya auspicious, virtu-
ous, holy; n. religious merit
g7: putrah son
gBra»T putrika, putrl daugh-
ter

g^ punar again, back
(again); enclitic however,
but, even so, yet, neverthe-
less

gt<(M punar api yet again,
once more

gTO — punar:ukta re-
peated, redundant
g^ pur f. rampart, city
gt puram city

345

TJT: purah forward, in
front, immediate, in the East
puraskrta placed in
front, before the eyes; hon-
oured

purastat forward,
from there on

purahsarah forerun-
ner attendant; pi. entourage
TfCT pura formerly, previ-
ously, once

puratana [f. I) for-
mer

purusah man
Pururavas m. pr. n.
^ pus cans, (posayati)
cause to thrive, rear

puskala abundant,
strong

puspatn flower
puspitagra

[prosody) name of a metre
pustakam book
^ pu (IX punati/punlte)
purify

purayati caus. of pf
Tjnf piirna full (p.p. of pf)
^ pOrva pron. adj. previ-
ous, earlier first, prior, fore-
going

purvam previously,
earlier; before (abl.)
prthak separately
IJIWMH : prthag:janah sepa-
rate person, ordinary person

TjfMt prthivl, prthvi earth
TJg prsta p.p , of prach
^ pr caus. (purayati) fill,
fulfil, ‘enrich*

: potakah young
animal/plant

paunaruktam redun-
dancy

tik paura urban; m. citizen;

paura:janah townsfolk
nk? Paurava (f. I) de-
scended from Puru
U4)K : prakarah manner
way, type, kind
Moxyi'i prakasanam dis-
playing

Ibfifa prakrti f. nature, dis-
position; pi. subjects (of
king), people

prakosthah court-
yard

instil pra + khya caus.
(prakhyapayati) publish,
proclaim

irafklT pracalita in motion
m-sik : pracarah roaming,

movement

nfk pra + ci (V pracinoti)
accumulate (trans.); pass.
pracfyate accumulate
(intrans.)

pracchannam se-
cretly, stealthily
ITSi'RP pracchadanam
concealment

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

346

pracchayam shade
HH^ prach (VI prcchati) ask,
question

JRT praja subject (of king)
TOPlfiT Prajapati m., pr. n.
HP prajna intelligence, un-
derstanding, guile
HH|^ pranam (pra + nam) (I
pranamati) make obei-
sance to, salute
JPJTH: pranayah affection,

entreaty

Hnrfn^ pranayin entreating,
suppliant, petitioner;
pranayi-kriya acting for a
petitionee, carrying out a
request

nntPT: pranSmah salutation
Hfinfit pranidhi m. (secret)
agent

yfir prati + acc. towards,
against, with regard to,
about

prati_kula [against
the bank:] contrary, hostile
uRifaxu pratikriya [action
against:] remedy, remedying
pratigrahah present
(to a brahmin from a king)
MRmMi praticchandakam
portrait, picture
Hfilp pratijna promise,
assertion

prati + drs (I prati-
pasyati) see

SlRH 5 ^ prati + nand (I prati-
nandati) receive gladly,
welcome

prati + ni + vrt (I
pratinivartate) return
HfiTOjT: pratipaksah oppo-
site side, enemy
Hfirr^ prati + pad (IV prati-
padyate) assent, admit
prati + pal (X prati-
palayati) wait for
Hfifig^ prati + budh (IV prati-
budhyate) wake up (in-
trans.)

HRl^ prati + budh cans.
(pratibodhayati) wake up
(trans.)

Mfnvwft pratirupaka (f. ika)
corresponding in form, like
HfHHtR prativacanam an-
swer, reply

wfueiM, prati + vas (I prati-
vasati) dwell, live (in)
Hfiiarra^ prati_vatam against
the wind, into the wind
UplRrar prati + vi + dha (HI
pratividadhati) prepare
against, take precautions
HfirfsWR prati vidb&nam
counter-measure
Hfir^J prati + sru (V pratis-
moti) promise
yRlRt^ pratisidh (prati + sidh)
(I pratisedhati), restrain,
forbid

JffipteT: pratisedhah prohi-

bition, cancellation
irfirer pratistha foundation
P<ft prati (prad + i) caus.
(pratyayayati) make confi-
dent

PfifcfcK : pratlkarah remedy
pratlks (prad + Iks) (I
pratlksate) wait (for)
P#glT: pratiMrah door-
keeper porter

JR*nr pratyagra fresh, recent
urtiRi^i pratyabhi + jfia
(IX pratyabhijanad)
recognise

P7PP: pratyayah (gram.)
suffix

HcqRt^ pratyarthin hostile
nr*4 pratyarpayati
(caus. of prad + r) hand over
give back

nrqctiti: pratyavayah re-
verse, annoyance
Hdnt, pratyas (prad + as) (IV
pratyasyati) cast aside
armwi-i praty akhyan am

rejection

pratya + dis (VI
pratyadisad) reject; put to
shame (by example)

pratyapanna returned
uram* pratyasanna near,
at hand, about
P?®pTP pratyutpanna
prompt, ready

tratr prathama first, previ-
ously; prathamam already
ufyd prathita widely
known

Pf^ pra + drs (I prapasyati)
see

PTiST: pradesah place, area
P| pra + dru (I pradravati)
run (p.p. intrans.)

WlR pradhSna principal,
important, (person) in au-
thority; ifc. having as one’s
authority

h«i*i : prabandhah (liter-
ary) work

P«5*^ pra + budh caus. (pra-
bodhayati) wake up; in-
form, admonish
PVT pra + bha (II prabhati)
shine forth, dawn
PVTST: prabhavah power
P^J prabhu m. master
P’J pra + bha (I prabhavati)
arise; prevail, have power
over, govern (gen.)

P*j<T prabhuta numerous,
abundant, large
P^jftt prabhrd f. beginning;
ifc. etc.

THjfir prabhrd + abl. or ifc.
(ever) since; drat prabhrd
[since a long time:] for (so)
long

PPP pramatta negligent,
inattentive

347

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

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348

JWIui pramanam measure,
size; standard of authority,
‘judge’

JPH3: pramSdah negli-
gence, mishap
JTy*r pramugdha (p.p. of
pra + muh) in a swoon, faint
pra + yat (I prayatate)
strive, exert oneself
srag: prayatnah effort, at-
tempt

pra + yuj (VII pray-
uAkte) employ; put into
practice; perform (on stage)
irafa: prayogah perform-
ance (of play)
iraW prayojanam pur-
pose, motive, need, mission,
matter, concern

pra + lap (I pralapati)
talk idly, babble
HcfRf pravatam breeze
traRE: pravadah talk, report
TraRT: pravasah travel
abroad, journey
irai?: pravahah stream,
current

pra + vis (VI pravisati)
enter; go/come in(to)
pra + vis caus. (pra-
vesayati) cause to come in,
show in, introduce into
TT^VT pravrtta commenced,
under way, in operation,
current

pravrtti f. news, events,
what has been happening
: pravesah entry,
entering

pra + sams (I prasamsati)
praise, extol

P?rw prasasya praisewor-
thy, to be admired
IIVIM prasanta calm

prasangah contin-
gency, occasion: pras-
anga~tah in passing
pra -i- sad ( I prasldati)
become tranquil, be at
peace

JTCTjT prasanna tranquil
IPHSf: prasavah parturition,
childbirth

m«I<: prasadav favour,

grace, graciousness; free gift
TPHI^p prasadl~kr bestow
(as free gift)

Jlfag prasiddha estab-
lished, recognised
JTgt<r prasupta p.p. of pra+
svap

pra + sr (I prasarati)
move forward, extend,
stretch

UWW: prastavah prelude
JTOT pra + stha (I prat-
isthate) set out/off/forth
itwt pra + stha caus.
(prasthapayati) send off,
despatch

H'WFT prasthanam depar-
ture; system, way

pra + svap (II prasva-
piti) fall asleep
Tiff pra + hi (V prahinoti)
despatch, send
Wg prahrsta delighted
OT3[» pr3k previously, be-
fore, first(ly); + abl. before
HUMt: prakarah rampart,
wall

prakrta (f. a/1) of the
people, vulgar, common
pran (pra + an)

(II praniti) breathe
Tim? pranah breath; pi. life
Uld-UVI : prStanasah [morn-
ing eating:] breakfast

pradur + bhii (pradurb-
havati) become manifest,
arise

prap (pra + ap) (V prsip-
noti) reach, arrive, go to;
obtain, win

pra + ap cans, (prapay-
ati) cause to reach, convey
HTO prapta obtained, ar-
rived, upon one
Ttrayt: prayasah, prayena
generally, usually
UK«i prarabdham [thing
undertaken:] enterprise
prarth (pra + arth) (X
prarthayate) long for, seek,
sue for

TJTsfar prarthana longing,
desire

pr&rthayitr suitor
Uldlug pravlnyam profi- -
ciency

TJTOR: prasadah mansion,

palace, pavilion; terrace;
[upstairs-]room
Rni priya dear, dearest,
beloved, welcome; ibc. or
ifc. fond of; m./f. sweet-
heart, loved on
fipt priyam benefit, service,
blessing

(udcKeb: Priyamvadakah
pr. n.

priyangu m.If. a type
of creeper

(U44llJl priyatsakhl [dear]
friend

jRIuh-^ prlti~mant full of
joy or affection, glad
ifejb preks (pra + Iks) (I pre-
ksate) see, discern

preman mJn. affection
preyams dearer; m.
loved one, lover

prer (pra + Ir) caus.
(prerayad) drive on,
impel, stir

pres (pra + is) caus.
(presayati) despatch,
send

ihUT pres an am sending
whs praudha full-grown

349

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

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350

phalam fruit, reward,
recompense, advantage
phalakam board,
bench, table

balculah a type of
tree ; bakulam bakula-
tree blossom

^ batu m. young brahmin
(student); fellow ( contemp-
tuously )

«RT bata enclitic alas!

<3^ bandh (IX badhniti)
tie, bind, fix; enter into
(friendship or hate)

^5 bandhu m. kinsman
barha m./n. (peacock’s)
tail-feather

balam force, strength;
sg./pl. (military) forces;
balat forcibly

balavant possessing
strength, strong; balavat
strongly, extremely
balin possessing
strength, strong

3[ftr: bahih outside

bahu much, many; + man
(bahu manyate) think
much of, esteem highly
: bahu:m3nah high
esteem, respect

bahu-vacanam
(gram.) plural (number)
bahusah many times,

often

WIT: banah arrow
• •

TOT badha molestation,
damage

TOT bala young; m. boy,
child; f. girl, child

bahulyam abun-
dance, multitude
TOT bahya external
fTO bisam lotus-fibre
^TOT blbhatsa repulsive,
foul; n. repulsiveness

Buddharaksita pr. n.
buddhi f. intelligence,
mind

buddhimant pos-
sessing intelligence, sentient
fq, budh (I bodhati/bodhate,
IV budhyate) awake, per-
ceive, learn

•flftHM: bodhhsattvah
[whose essence is enlighten-
ment:] Buddhist saint in the
final stage of enlightenment
brahmacarin

student

TOR, brahman n. spiritual-
ity, (religious) chastity
«i 5 <ui : brahman ah brahmin

% brO (II bravlti) say, tell,
speak

TO bhaktam food

bhakti f. devotion,
loyalty

bhagavant reverend,
revered, venerable, blessed;

m. His Reverence, Reverend
Sir, f. (bhagavatl) Her
Reverence

bhagna p.p. of bhaiij
bhangah breaking;
plucking (of buds); disper-
sal (of crowds)

bhanj (VII bhanakti)
break, shatter

bhanj anam breaking
: bhattah lord, master,
learned man

^5 bhadra good, dear; voc.
bhadra my good man,
bhadre dear lady,
madam

bhayam fear; danger
bharatah actor, player
Bharatah pr. n.

^ bhartr m. [supporter:]
master; husband

bhartr-darika
[daughter of (my) master:]
mistress

vraral bhavatl f. of bhavant
bhavatu [let it be:]
right then!

bhavanam house,
home; [house (of king ):]
palace

bhavant pres. part, of

bha

bhavant m., bhavatl
f. you (politely), you sir etc.

bhavet (3rd sg. para,
opt. o/bhu) might be

iTPI: bhagah division, por-
tion, allotment, tithe
Bhagurayanah

pr. rt.

bhajanam receptacle,

box

bhandam box
UTT: bharah burden, load,
luggage

'MlR* bharika burdensome
Wlf bharya wife
MT3T: bhavah state of

being; essence, meaning,
implication; emotional
state, emotion

bhavin future,
imminent

WWaB: Bhasvarakah
pr. n.

RlSfT bhiksa alms
fafw bhitti f. wall
bhid (YU bhinatti)
split, separate

fan bhinna split, open, dif-
ferent; bhinn>:artha with
open meaning, plain
iftrT bhlta afraid
’for bhlru fearful
^ bhu (I bhavati) become,
be; arise, happen; expresses
‘have, get’ etc.

^ bhfl f. earth

bhut 3rd sg. injunctive
ofbba

’JiT bhuta having become,
being

351

Sanskrit-Hnglish vocabulary

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352

»|fir bhumi f. ground; fit
object (for); parityagabh&mi
suitable recipient (of)
sjfirTTH: bhumi-palah king,

ruler

bhuyams more, fur-
ther

Bhurivasu m., pr. n.
bhBsanam ornament
^ bhr (I bharad, m bibharti)
bear, support

bhrtyah servant
bhedah division, sepa-
ration, variety

bhaista znd pi. para,
injunctive of bhl ‘fear’
dt: bhoh oh! ho!; bho
bhoh ho there!
dfrT: bhogah enjoyment
bhogin serpent; the
number eight

bhojanam food
WT: bhramsah fall, decline
bhr am (I bhramati)
wander be confused
bhratr m. brother

*FWT: mamsthah znd
sg. atm. injunctive of man
%»*W: Makar andah pr. n.
Maghavant m. irreg.
(gen. sg. Maghonah) name
oflndra

mangalam welfare,
good luck, auspicious
omen, auspiciousness

mani m. jewel
WWV mandapa m./n. pavil-
ion, bower

^ mat stem form and abl.
sg. of ah am

*rf?T mad f. thought, wit,
mind, opinion, notion

matimant possess-
ing wit, sensible
W matta in rut, rutting
*RT: mattah from me
mad (IV madyati) re-
joice, be intoxicated
madah intoxication
3CT: madanah love, pas-
sion; god of love

Madayantika

pr. n.

madlya my, mine
madhu m. (season or
first month of) spring

madhukarah, mad-
hukarl [honey-maker:]
bee, honey-bee
JtgT madhura sweet
*TW madhya middle;
madhyat from the middle
of, from among; madhye
in the middle of, among
dSTW madhya-stha [mid-
standing:] neutral
tl^ man (IV manyate)
think, suppose, regard (as),
esteem, approve

man caus. (manayati)
esteem, honour

353

manas n. mind, heart,
intelligence

: manorathah desire,

fancy

mano-vrtti f.
process of mind, fancy,
imagination

mant possessive suffix
mantrin minister
in? manda slow, slack,
gentle; mand>adara careless
m?IT: mandarah, mandara:
vrksakah coral-tree
JWlftcM Mandarika pr. n.

mandl~bhu become
slack, slacken
IPUST: manmathah love,

god of love

1P5 manyu m. passion,
anger

innf maranam death, dying
nflRj MarTci m. name of a
sage

if? maru m. desert

martya mortal, human
Malayaketu m.,

pr. n.

masl, masl black pow-
der, ink; masl-bhajanam
receptacle for ink, inkpot
W maha descriptive stem
form o/mahant

mahaidevl chief

queen

mahant great, noble,
vast, numerous

maha:mamsam
[great flesh:] human flesh
VgKM : maha:rajah great

king, king

njfrtzf maharghya valuable
mahiman m. great-
ness

mahl earth

mahl-dharah [earth-
supporter:] mountain

mahl-pati m. [lord
of earth:] king

mahisurah m. [god
on earth:] brahmin

Mah»:endrah [great]
Indra

H'glcWai : mah» :otsavah
[great] festival, holiday
HT ma prohibitive particle
(do) not etc.

nW mamsam flesh, meat
matt f. mother
matra measure, size;
-matra having the size of,
mere, only etc.
nratt: Madhavah pr. n.
nrao? ; Madhavyah pr. n.

manayitavya (ger.
of caus. of man) requiring
to be honoured
nRn manasam [that which
is mental:] mind

Manasam name of a

lake

manusah human
being, mortal

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

Sanskrtt-English vocabulary

354

rnfofa mamaklna my,
mine

fota : Marlcah (Kasyapa)
son of Marlei

rrrf: margah road, path, way
JTTMtft Malatl pr. n.

^TTHT mala garland
ktfw-A MalinI name of river
mahatmyam great-
ness of spirit, generosity
for mitram friend
fof: mithah together, mu-
tually

fop mithunam pair
ffotT mithya wrong(ly), im-
proper(ly)
to misra mixed

mukulam bud
ytai mukham (f. 1 when
ifc.) face, mouth, front,
forepart

rjraT mukhara talkative
mukharayati
denom. make talkative
*J<sib*&W: mukh-occhvasah
breath [of the mouth]
mugdha naive, simple
muc (muncati) let go,
shed

353% mudrayati denom.
stamp, seal

mudra seal, stamp,
(signet-)ring, [authorising
seal:] ‘pass’
rjPr muni m. sage

muhorta mJn. (short)
while, ‘minute’, moment
muka dumb, silent
rjJ mudha deluded, idiotic;
m. idiot

** murkha foolish; m. fool
rjtjf murcha faint, swoon
fo mulam root, basis,
foundation
*PT: mrgah deer

mrgatrsnika
[deer-thirst:] mirage
rppSTT mrgaya hunting, the
chase

mmalavant pos-
sessing lotus-fibres

mrta [p.p. of mi ‘die’)
dead

rjr^SRT: mrtyum-jayah

Conqueror of Death
mrdu soft
mis cans, (marsayati)
overlook, excuse
rj^T mrsa vainly
fosn medha mental power,
intellect

for medhya fit for sacri-
fice, sacrificial
♦licui Menaka pr. n.
for Menh pr.n.

mene 3 rd sg. atm. perf.
of man

Afavt Maithila belonging
to Mithila; m. king of
Mithila

mohah delusion
mlecchah barbarian
mlai (I mlayati) fade,
wither

^T: yah, ya-karah the letter y;

(prosody) the syllables

tl: yah rel. prort. who,
which, that; n. sg. yat
that, in that, inasmuch as
etc. (Chapters xi to 13)

yah kas dt who-
ever

yatah rel. adv. from
which, since etc.

yati f. (prosody) caesura
tTf: yatnah effort
TR yatra rel. adv. in which,
where

yat satyam [what is
true:] truth to tell, in truth
W yatha rel. adv. in the
way that, as; so that etc.;
yatha yatha . . . tatha tatha
in proportion as, the more
that

W yatha ibc. as, according
to, in conformity with
^raiaRt, yathavat exactly,
properly

W yada rel. adv. when;

yad»aiva as soon as
^ yadi rel. adv. if,
whether; yady api even if,
though

yamah twin
yamaja twin[-born]

^1 ya (II yati) go

ya caus. (yapayati)
spend (time)

yadtr (from yac ‘ so-
licit’) sue^ petitioner
TOT yatra procession

yadrsa (f. i) rel. adj. of
which kind, such as, just as
TO: yamah night watch
(of three hours)

yavat connective par-
ticle [during which time:]
(I’ll) just

TO<(. yavat + acc. until, up
to; ibc. throughout
TO^ yavat rel. adv. for as
long as, while, until; yavat +
na before

yavant rel. adj. as
much as

yukta proper right
yukti f. argument
*pr yugam pair; ifc. two
^ yuj joined, even (in
number); a:yuj uneven, odd
yuta united, equipped
with

yusmat pi. stem form
and abl. pi. of tvam

yusmadiya belong-
ing to you (pi.)

yusmakam of you
(pi.), your, of yours

355

Sanskrlt-Engllsh vocabulary

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356

^T: yogah use, applica-
tion, managing; magical art;
system of meditation
■*iNr yogya suitable

rah, rephah the let-
ter r; (prosody) the syllables

— w —

TITR ramhas n. speed
TBif, raks (I raksati) protect,
save, guard, hold
W>r raksanam protection,
defending

raksas n. devil
Tfijg raksitr protector;
guard

iac (V racayati) produce,
place

Tflnr racita placed
Tfif rati f. pleasure, love-
making, love

ratnam jewel, gem
T®K rathya (rat hah car-
riage) [carriage-]road, street
ramanlya pleasant,
attractive, lovely, dehghtful
VQ ramya attractive

rasmi m. rein, bridle
TtT: rasah juice, liquid;
flavour, taste

rahas n. sohtude,
secrecy; rahasi in secret,
secretly

TjnR rahasya secret
TTCjTCT: Raksasah pr. n.

TPT: ragah passion; red-
ness; musical mood
TT3ra>*n raja-kanya princess
raja-karyam [king’s
business:] state administra-
tion

TTSI^ raj an m. king, prince,
chieftain; voc. sire
TRgif: raja-putrah king’s
son, prince

nkja-bhavanam

palace

raja-lokah [com-
pany of] kings or princes
TFHf r5j yam kingdom,
state; kingship, reign
TR: ratrah atendofcpd.

for ratri f. night
TR: Ramah pr. n.

TRnftqgt rikmanlyakam
loveliness, dehghtful
aspect

Ramayanam name
of an epic poem
Tlftr rSsi m. heap
fttj ripu m. enemy
^ rudh (VII runaddhi)
obstruct

^3, ruh (I rohati) rise, grov
^5, ruh cans, (rohayati/ro-
payati) raise, grow
rupam form; beauty,
looks

rbpakam (lit. crit.)
metaphor

rephah see rah
t'EdcR: Raivatakah pr. n.

BBS, laks (X laksayati)
notice

BBJB laksanam characteris-
tic, (auspicious) mark; defi-
nition

B^BE: Laksmanah pr.n.
B*J laghu light; brief

lajj (VI lajjate) be em-
barrassed, blush, show con-
fusion

B*j^ lajj cans, (lajjayati)
embarrass

BEET lajja shame, embar-
rassment, shyness
tri'Niioti lajja-kara (f. I)
embarrassing
Bn? Landra London
BET lata creeper, vine
BH, labh (I labhate) take,
gain, win, get, obtain, find
BH, labh cans, (lambhayati)
cause to take, give
BE: lavah fragment; lavaso
lavasah piece by piece
BE 1 : Lavah pr. n.

HcJ^-ctu Lavafigika pr.n.
laghavam lightness,
levity, [light treatment of a
guru:] disrespect
BRT5T : Latavyah pr.n.

BHT: labhah getting, win-
ning, acquisition; profit

fBB[, likh (VI likhati) write
fB^ lirigam mark, sign;

phallus; [gram.) gender
#BT Ilia play, sport
: lekhah letter, docu-
ment

BlET : lokah world, people
BlER locanam eye
BtETgET Lopamudra pr.n.
BbT: lobhah greed
BfrRL loman n. hair (on
body)

EB: vamsah lineage, dy-

nasty, race

E^ vac (II vakti) tell, say,
state, express, declare, speak
of, describe, speak to, ad-
dress

BEE vacanam saying, state-
ment, speech, word; -vacanat
[from the statement of:] in
the name of

EBB, vacas n. word, words,
speech

EsT vajra m.ln. thunder-
bolt, diamond, hard sub-
stance

EBB vancanS cheating, trick
Eftnj, vanij (vanik) m.

businessman, trader
ET^ ~vat [n. sg. of vant)
like, as, in accordance with
EBB: vatamsah, vatamsakah
ornament, esp. earring

357

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

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358

3?3 : vatsah calf; dear child
cfWcT vatsala affectionate,
loving

33. vad (I vadati) say,
speak, tell

337 vadanam mouth, face
33: vadhah killin g, death

33 , vadhu f. woman, bride
3ST vadhya [due to be exe-
cuted:] condemned to death
37 van am forest, jungle,
wood, grove; vana-mala
[jungle-garland:] garland of
wild flowers

cHWfif vanaspati m. [lord
of the jungle:] (forest) tree
3f73T vanita f. woman
3^37: vanecarah forest-

dweller

37^ vant possessive suffix
3«3 vand (I vandate) vener-
ate, worship
3753 vandhya barren
33*^ vayam ( nom . pi. of
aham) we etc.

337, vayas n. vigour,
youth; age (in general)

33153: vayasyah [one of
same age:] friend
3T varam a preferable
thing, better
3T : varah suitor
37131 varaka [f. I)
wretched, pitiable, ‘poor’
3>? : vargah group

3^ varn (X varnayati) de-
pict, describe

3ii?: varnah colour appear-
ance; social class
33?7, vartman n. track,
path, way

3^: varsah rain; year
3vT3 valaya m.In. bracelet;

circle, enclosure
353»<a valkala m.In. bark
(of tree), bark-dress (worn
by ascetic)

3" 3 vallabha beloved; m.

sweetheart
39T: vasah power;

-va&t from the power of,
because of

vas (I vasati) dwell, live
(in)

337 vasanam dress
3f33f: Vasisthah pr. n.
3^j37T Vasumdhara pr. n.
vastu n. thing, matter,
substance; vastu-vrttam
[what has happened in sub-
stance:] the facts
3?^ vah (I vahati) carry,
take, marry

3T va enclitic or; . . . va . . .
vS either . . . or . . .; na va
or not; na . . . na va not . . .
nor

3133 vakyam statement, ut-
terance, sentence
313, vac f. speech, words

HliT: vatah wind
gifoi, vadin speaking, talk-
ing

cfli^ci : Vimadevah pr. n.
grg vayu m. wind
gift van n. water

Vanina (f. 1) deriving
from the god Varuna
graf vartta news

Valmiki ttt., pr. n.
HRf vis (X vasayati) perfume
clI-M : vasah dwelling, living
<?rag: Vasavah (Indra)
chief of the Vasus
giftl^ vasin living in, dweller
vahin carrier
vi + kas (I vikasati)
burst, blossom, bloom
fg«FR: vikarah transforma-
tion; mental disturbance;
ifc. made out of

vi + kr (VIII vikaroti)
alter, change, distort, men-
tally disturb

fgaW: vikramah valour
fesfitg vikramya (absol. of
vi + kram) after attacking,
by force

fg*l»t vi + krl (IX vikrtolte)
sell to ( loc .)
fgibq vikretr vendor
fg53ig : viklava bewildered,
distressed

fgu?: vigrahah separation;
body

vi + ghat (I vighatate)
become separated
fgsnrf: vighatah destruc-
tion, elimination
fg^T: vighnah obstacle,
hindrance

vi + car (I vicarati)
move about, roam

vi + car caus. (vicSray-
ati) deliberate, ponder
ftraiT: vicarah pondering,
thought

faftrar vicitra variegated,
various, wonderful
feftRE vi + cint (X vicintayati)
consider; think of, reflect
f^STST Vijaya pr. n.
fep vi + jfia (EX vijanati)
find out, discern, under-
stand, know

fgjlT vi + jfia caus. (vijfiapay-
ati) say politely, request,
beg, beg to say/tell
fg^RT vijfiapani request
fgCT vitapa m. n. branch,
bush, thicket

: vitarkah conjecture,
doubt

vi + tr (I vitarati) grant,
bestow

fH vid (II vetti) know,
learn, discover
fg^ vid (VI vindati) find,
acquire, possess; pass, vidy-
ate is found, exists

359

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

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360

-vid ifc. knowing,
learned in

1=1 ^*1 vidagdha skilful,
clever

felT vidya learning, science
feg vi + dru caus. (vidrav-
ayad) chase away, disperse
fegPEt, vidvams (perf. part.

ofv id) learned, wise
fesn vi + dha (HI vidadhati)
arrange, manage, provide
for (something)
felT vidha kind, sort; ifc.

of the same sort as, such as
taelW vidhanam arrange-
ment

feftr vidhi m. injunction
(esp. of ritual)’, vidhivat
according to [the injimction
of] ritual

fafcei'H, vi + dhvams (I vid-
hvamsate) fall to pieces,
shatter

vinayah discipline,
good breeding

vi + nas (IV vinasyati)
perish, die; caus.

(vinasayati) destory
vinasta p.p.ofy i +

nas

vina + instr. without
: vinasah destruction

fipfar vinlta disciplined,
well bred, modest
vi + nud caus.

(vinodayati) divert, distract
viparlta inverted,
reverse, opposite
toM vipinam forest
vi + pra + kr (VIII
viprakarod) injure, tor-
ment

feUlldM'sl vipraripanna per-
plexed, uncertain
FsimwH, vi + pra + labh (I
vipralabhate) mislead, de-
ceive

f3VPT: vibhagah part, por-
tion

vibhu powerful esp. as
epithet of Siva

vi + bhu caus. (vibhav-
ayad) make manifest: per-
ceive distinctly, detea

vibhud f. splendour
wealth; pi. riches

viunanas despon-
dent

vimardah conflia
vimarsah delibera-
tion, doubt

tow vi + muc (VI viiiiuh-
cati) release, loose

vi + mrs (VI vimrsati)
perceive, reflect, deliberate
vi + yuj (VII viyunkte)
disjoin, separate, deprive of
(instr.)

vi + rac (X viracayati)
construct, fashion, work

finfgtT virahita separated,
bereft

few; vi + raj (I virajati)
gleam, shine out; virajant
pres. part, gleaming out
feW vilaksa disconcerted,
ashamed

felW: vilambah delay
feint: vilasah coquetry,
playful movement
vi + lok cans.
(vilokayati) look at, watch
fefe vilola unsteady,
tremulous

fefe vivaksita (p.p. of
desiderative vivaksati)
wished to be said, meant
vivasvant m. [the
Shining One:] svrn
farai?: vivadah disagree-
ment, dispute
fell*: vivahah wedding
fltfe viividha of various
kinds

feh*: vivekah discrimina-
tion

feta: visesah distinction;
ifc. a particular — , a spe-
cial — ; visesa~tah in par-
ticular

fetamta visesana:padam
[distinguishing word:] epi-
thet

fell*' vi:soka free from
sorrow, at ease

fefll, vi + sram (IV visramy-
ati) rest, cease, take a rest
fejW: visrambhah confi-

dence; visrambha-katha/
kathitam confidential or
intimate conversation
felRI visrSnta p.p. of \ i +
sram

felUT : visrSmah rest, respite
fe|<T visruta widely heard
of, known, famous
fe^ta: vislesah separation,

estrangement
fel visvam the whole
world, universe
feaioH, visv>-atman m.

Soul of the Universe,
Supreme Godhead
fe visam poison
few visama uneven
fe^T: visayah dominion,
sphere, field of action
fer^: visadah despair de-
jection, disappointment,
distress

fejRpT : Visnuguptah pr. n.
fejj?!*^ Visnusarman m.,
pr. n.

vi + srj (VI visrjati)
discharge, release, dismiss
fefjf, vi + srj caus. (visarjay-
ati) release, dismiss, bid
farewell to

fep^ vi + srp (I visarpati)
be diffused, spread, glide

361

Sanskrtt-English vocabulary

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

362

vistarah expansion,
prolixity; vistaratah at
length, in detail
fireflof vistlrna extensive
vismayah astonish-
ment

vismita astonished
vi + smr (I vismarati)
forget

vihagah bird
lc«*itt vihata (p.p. of vi +
han) struck, broken
IdtfW viihasta [with hands
awry:] clumsy

vihaya [having left
behind:] beyond (acc.)

viharah (Buddhist)
monastery/convent

viharin roaming
vihita p.p. of v i +

dha

vihvala tottering, un-
steady

vlks (vi+lks) (I viksate)
discern, spy, scrutinize
vlj (X vljayate) fan
sftftraiT vlthika row, grove
vrksah, vrksakah
tree

vrt (I vartate) proceed,
currently exist, abide, hap-
pen; {of promises etc.) be
entered upon

vrta (p.p. ofvr) chosen,
preferred, asked in marriage

vrtta {p.p. of vrt) hap-
pened etc.

vrttam metre; vrttaratna-
karah ‘Treasury of Metres’
frllnt: vrttantah news,
what has happened, ‘scene’,
‘story’

vrtti f. behaviour, con-
duct; (gram.) synthetic ex-
pression (i.e. by cpds.)

^ vrdh (I vardhate) grow;

+ distya be congratulated
^ vrdh cans, (vardhayati)
increase ( trans .); + distya
congratulate

Vrsalah pr. n.
vrsti f. rain

cPl: vegah haste, speed

^5 venu m. bamboo, reed;
flute

vetasah, vetra
m.!n. reed, cane

vedah (from vid)
knowledge, sacred know-
ledge, scripture

vedana ache, pain,
pang

e)R«*>l vedika balcony

vedin knowing, con-
scious (of), appreciative
vedl (sacrificial) altar
slvIT vela boundary; shore;
time (of day)

vesman n. residence,
house, etc.

vesah dress, attire

vaiklavyam (viklava)
bewilderment, despondency
^GHTTO: vaikhanasah her-

mit, anchorite

vaitalikah (royal)

bard

vaidagdhyam (vida-
gdha) cleverness (esp. ver-
bal dexterity)

Vaideha (f. I) belong-
ing to (the country of )
Videha; nt. King of Videha;
f. Queen/Princess of Videha
<Nr vaidya learned; m.
physician, doctor

vaidheya foolish; m.

fool

Vainateyah [Vinata’s
son:] Garuda (King of the
Birds)

vaimanasyam de-
spondency

it vairam hostility

: Vairodhakah pr.n.
Actif$<t> vaivahika (f. I)
(suitable) for a wedding
ehfWr Vaihlnari m., pr. n.

vodhr m. bridegroom
c*RI» vyakta clear, obvious
«*RT vyagra engrossed, in-
tent

vyanjanam sign,
indication; insignia,
disguise

e^fd*<: vyatikarah (kf
‘mix’) blending together,
confluence, ‘expanse’

vyatirekin differ-
ing, distinct

esp^r; vyapadesah desig-
nation, name

: vyabhicarah devi-
ation, swerving

vyabhicSrin li-
able to deviate, swerving
SIV vy:abhra cloudless
SRt: vyayah loss; expense,
extravagance

«*|euft vyavaso (vi + ava + so)
(IV vyavasyati p.p. vyava-
sita) decide, resolve
oEra^lT: vyavaharah dealings,
usage; litigation

vyavahr (vi + ava + hr)
(I vyavaharati) act, deal
with, behave towards ( loc .)
SHSPT vyasanam vice, vi-
cious failing, weakness, de-
ficiency; misfortune, misery
sn? : vyaghrah tiger
SIPF: vyajah fraud, pre-

tence

vya + pad cans, (vya-
padayati) [cause to per-
ish:] kill, slay

vySparah occupa-
tion

^ vya + pf caus. (vyapa-
rayati) set to work, employ

363

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

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364

omi<|^ vya + vrt caus. (vya-
vartayati) cause to turn
back, drive back
gTT vratam vow; ifc. [having
as one’s vow:] devoted to
vrlhi m. rice

7T: sah distributive suffix :
ekasah in ones, singly;
lavasah in pieces
7IR sams [I samsati)
praise, proclaim
7iRR samsin proclaiming
7R* sak (V saknoti) be
able, ‘can’

7I4ȣ4I'4I: ^akatadasah pr. n.
7lf>Pl sakuni m. bird

^akuntala pr. n.
$1% sakti f. ability, power
7133 sakya possible, able to
be

7I|?r saAka suspicion, fear,
anxiety, care

Tld) Saci name of Indra’s
wife

713 satha cunning
TRY satam a hundred
yrcWf Satakratu m. name
of lndra

TRHpi sataiguna hundred-
fold; satagunayati denom.
multiply by a hundred
7R satru m. enemy
71*: sanaih quiedy, gently;

sanaih sanaih very gently

7IR: sabdah sound, noise;
word

7R sam caus. (samayad)
quieten, appease
7133 sayanam (si ‘lie’) re-
pose, sleeping; sayana-
grham sleeping-quarters,
bedchamber
TIT: sarah arrow
TITUT saranam shelter;
refuge

7TR sarad f. autumn
TTfrf sarlram body, ‘person’
TlfTR. sasin m. moon
THST sastram knife, sword,
weapon

7n$3l$3 Sakuntaleya born
of Sakuntala
Tirai sakha branch
Tint: sSpah curse
7IT^T3: SarAgaravah pr. n.
TITfyf: sardulah tiger
7n?t : salah sal-tree
7IIM sala hall, apartment
7IT33 s&svata (f. I) perpetual
7ITR sas (II ssisti) govern,
teach

Vh*H sis an am command
TTira sastram (technical)
treatise, law-book
frnar sikhara m./n. point,
tip

frnar sikha crest
friftm sithila loose, slack
fTITR siras n. head

f$TBT sila f. stone
ftlST: 6ivah name of a god
fyrfVTT sisira cold
fypj sisu m. child
ftlg sista (p.p. of sis)
learned; sist >-anadhyayanam
holiday in honour of
learned (guests)

%®t: sisyah [one requiring
to be taught:] pupil
si (II sete) lie
yftu slghra swift, fast
sltala cool
slrsam head
sue (I socati) grieve,
mourn

gfe sud pure, clean
ggRT : suddhantah

women’s apartments,
household

subha auspicious
susrusa (desiderative
of sru) desire to hear/learn
sunya empty, devoid
(of), deserted, desolate
sula m./n. stake, spit,
lance, trident (of Siva);
sulam aruh caus. [cause to
mount the stake:] impale
sulin Trident-bearer
( epithet of Siva)

srgalah jackal
sesah remainder por-
tion to be supplied
$vT: sailah mountain

yifai: sokah grief, sadness
socanlya, socya
(ger. of sue) to be
mourned for; pitiable,
lamentable

viluiUwi Sonottara pr. n.
sobhana shining,
bright, beautiful

sobha brilliance,
beauty

VHVTTC smasanam burning
ground, cemetery
ytmt syama, sySmala dark
$lgr srad + dha (III srad-
dhatte) put trust in, believe
SW: sramah exertion
sravanam hearing
93VT: sravanah ear

srSnta (p.p. of sram
‘tire’) tired

3TR3»: sravakah Buddhist

disciple, student

: £riparvatah name
of a mountain
% sru (V srnoti) hear; lis-
ten to

sreySms better; n. sg.
sreyas welfare, blessing
srestha best, supreme
sresthin m. eminent
businessman, merchant
srotr listener, someone
to listen

<ibf srotram (organ or act
of ) hearing

365

Sanskrit-English vocabulary

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366

flftdW: srotriyah learned
(brahmin,) scholar
nhf srauta (f. 1/a) deriving
from scripture, scriptural
slaghya praisewor-
thy, virtuous

slokah stanza
Iff: svah adv. tomorrow
: svapakah outcaste
STTO3 svapada m.ln. beast
of prey, ‘big game’

n sas (sat) six

sodasa(n) sixteen

^ sa prefix co-, fellow-;
having (with one), accom-
panied by, possessing, shar-
ing etc.

sah pron. that, the, that
one, he etc.; sah + eva just
that, that very, the same

sam, sam 1 verbal pre-
fix together etc.

sam + yam (I samyac-
chati) restrain, arrest
samyamanam re-
straint, tightening
samyuta joined
sam + vad (I samvadati)
accord, fit

samvaranam cover-
ing up, duplicity

samvigna agitated,
overwhelmed

samvrtta (p.p. of sam
+ vrt) become, turned into
etc.

sam + vrdh caus. (satn-
vardhayati) congratulate
tHbT: samvegah agitation
^jeflSjCR : s amvyavaharah

transaction

tTWTT: samskarah prepara-

tion, adornment

sam + stambh (IX
samstabhnati) make firm,
sustain, compose
W'Wtui samstaranam strew-
ing

sam + stu (II samstauti)

praise

TifisRT samsthita standing,
remaining, steady
sakala whole
sakasam [to the
presence of:] to
TBfe sakhi m. ( irreg .) com-
rade, friend; voc. sakhe
(my) friend, my dear— etc.
insf) sakhi (female) friend,
wife of friend; voc. sakhi
my dear etc.

samkalpa-nirmita
[created by conception:]
imagined

1 sam is the basic form, but for brevity in tbe following entries saip + yam is
written instead of saipyam (sam + yam) and so forth.

««S*w samkula crowded,
thronged; n. throng

samketah agreement,
assignation; samketa-stha-
nam place of assignation
ylSjtd sarnksipta abbrevi-
ated, in concise form

samksepah abridge-
ment, conciseness
TtelT sam + khya (II samkh-
yati) count, reckon up
d<s*li samkhya number; nu-
meral

sam + gam (I samgac-
chate) come together,
agree, fit

ufad: sacivah counsellor,
minister

sajja prepared,
equipped

sajjl~bhu (I sajjlbha-
vati) become prepared,
prepare

samcayah collection,
quantity

sam + car (I samcarate)
walk, stroll

ddit: samcarah movement

samcarin going to-
gether; transitory; samclrl
bhavah (lit. crit.)
Subsidiary Emotional State
ifaR, sam + jan (IV samja-
yate) come into being, be
aroused

WT samjna signal

^RFIT: satk&rah honouring,

hospitality, entertainment
sat~kr (Vin satkaroti)
honour; receive with hospi-
tality, entertain
sattvam being,
essence; creature

satya true, real; satyam
truly, really; satyam truth
satya:samdha
[whose compact is true:]
true to one’s word

sa_tvara full of haste,

busy

TR. sad (I sidati) sit, abide
-sad ifc. dweller (in)

TJ33IT sadrsa (/. I) similar;
like, suitable, in keeping
with, worthy

sant pres. part, of as;
true, virtuous

doik: samtapah burning,
torment

ddl'r: samtosah satisfaction
samdarsanam sight,
beholding

^3*1, sam + dis (VI
samdisati) command

^!?T: samdesah message
: samdehah doubt,
confusion

TOIT sam + dha (HI sarndha-
tte) bring together; agree,
come to terms; aim (arrow)

367

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

368

TOT samdha agreement,
compact

TOTT samdhya twilight,
evening

5ETf-{l^T samnihita present,
[in the area of:] about
TOT sapta(n) seven
tmw saptama seventh
traw sa_phala [having
fruit:] fulfilled
TO sama even, equal
tWSjW^ samaksam visibly, in
front of

samanantaram
immediately after, there-
upon

TOTT: samayah occasion,
season, time

TOsf samartha capable, able
TO^ht samarthanam estab-
lishment, confirmation
tWtfclfir samarpayati {cans.

of sam + r) hand over
TOTOT: samavayah coming

together, union

TOTRT samasta combined, all
TOTTO: samlgamah meet-
ing with, union
TOTSI^ sam + a + car (I sama-
carati) conduct oneself,
act, do

tWWR: samacarah con-
duct, behaviour
TOlfe samadhi m. concen-
tration, (reHgious) meditation

TOW samana similar, same

TOIWTTT: samamn&yah
traditional enumeration,
list

TOW5, sam + a + ruh (I saina-
rohati) ascend, attain

TOWT: samasah (gram.)

compound

TOnRR, sam + a + sanj (I
samasajati) attach to
(loc.), impose upon

TORI^ sam + a + sad cans.
(samasadayati) approach,
attain, meet

TOT?TT: samaharah group,
collection

TETfa 1 ^ samidh f. firewood

samucita suitable, in
accord with

ITgWT samuttha (sam + ut +
stha) (I samuttisthati)
rise up

trg3: samudrah ocean

sam + upa + dis (VI
samupadisati) point out,
show

TO^ sam + pad caus.
(sampadayati) bring about
sampuraa fulfilled

■HJlfit samprati now

4iU<l4 : sampradayah tradi-

tion

TO? sam + pra + dhr caus.
(sampradhSrayati) deliber-
ate, wonder

sampraharah fight-
ing, combat

samprap (sam + pra +
ap) (V samprapnoti) ar-
rive, come to

dkjc sampluta flowed to-
gether, flooding

Ual-ci : s ambandhah union
sambandhin rela-
tive (by marriage)

sambuddhi f. calling
out; (gram.) vocative

-sambhava ifc. arising
from, offspring of

sambhavah birth,

• • *

origin

iNraRT sambhavana sup-
posing

sambhavya credible,
conceivable, adequate

sam + bhQ (I sambhavati)
arise, be bom

sam + bhu caus.
(sambhavayati) conceive,
imagine; meet with,
find

TSPJrt sambhrta assembled,
concentrated, augmented
sambhedah union,
confluence

inRb sam + mantr (X sam-
mantrayati) take counsel,
consult

sammardah crush,
encounter, throng

sammQdha (p.p. of
sam + muh) bewildered,
confused, deluded

sammohah bewilder-
ment, delusion

saras sarasl lake
sarit f. river
sarpah snake
sarva prott. all, whole,
every; n. sg. everything,
anything (at all); m. sg.
everyone (in general)

T&fo: sarvatah on all sides,
in all directions; totally, in
full detail

«efui sarvatha in every
way, totally, at all events, [in
all circumstances:] always
sarvada always, ever
sarva-n5man n.
(gram.) [name for any-
thing:] pronoun

salilam water
sa_visesam [with
particulars:] particularly,
completely

sah (I sahate) with-
stand, endure, bear
W saha + instr. together
with, with

yffrhfH sahacarin accom-
panying, companion

sahadharmacarin
m. lawful husband; sahad-
harmacarinl lawful wife

369

SanskrtHEnglish vocabulary

Sanskrlt-Engllsh vocabulary

370

HlPj; sahabhu inherent,
natural

HilHT sahasa vehemently,
suddenly

TRFff sahasram a thousand
sah>:adhyayanam
studying together; common
lessons

TRIPT: sahayah companion
W sahya {ger. of sah)
bearable

tfflPw samgramika (/. 1)
relating to war (samgra-
mah), military
■Hlfijcd sadvyam being
minister, post of minister
Iffi sadhanam army
HTg sadhu good, virtuous,
right; adv. sadhu bravo!;
sadhutara better
•uiPiwi samnidhyam presence
•umr-si sapatnyam the state
of being the sharer of a
husband (sapatnl)

Wife: samajikah specta-
tor

•HWM samanya common,
general

HIM samprata [relating to
now (samprati):] timely,
proper; adv. sampratam
now, at once

yik+k sayam at evening;
s&yamtana (f. I) [relating to]
evening

HIT sara m./n. substance;
property

HlTfif sarathi m. driver of
chariot

HRtlH s>_avadhana care-
ful, watchful

HT?H sahasa rash, reckless
TTT?ftl«l> sahasika (f. I) reck-
less, adventurous
fHT^ sic (IV sincati) sprin-
kle, moisten
frrar sita white
fHg siddha (p.p. o/’sidh)
achieved, accomplished
: Siddharthakah

pr. n.

fife siddhi f. achievement,
success, fulfilment
Tfhn Site pr. n.

Siradhvajah pr. n.

TJ su laudatory prefix well,
fair; good, very etc.; easily,
easy

su:kumara (f. 1)
delicate

ipsT sukham pleasure,
happiness; adv. sukham
comfortably, at one’s ease
su:caritam good

deed

sutah son
IpTI suta daughter
f^T sundara (f. 1) beautiful
TpT supta (p.p. of svap)
asleep

f*PT subhaga fortunate,
lovely, delightful

surbhru fair-browed,
fair

surah god

su:ratam love-making
■jpfa surabhi fragrant

su:labha easily got,
natural

^e(u| suvarnam gold; su-
varnah gold piece
■gfrni: suhrttamah close

friend

suhrtta being friendly,
affection

suhrd m. friend
sflc (X sucayati) point
out, indicate

■gjT: sutah driver of chariot

sutram thread; apho-
rism, aphoristic rule
suryah sun
secanam (act of)
sprinkling, watering
sena army

^TTufir sena-pati m. [lord
of army:] general
ifaf seva attendance (upon
someone), servitude

sainikah [belonging
to army:] soldier

sodhum inf. of sah
sodarah, sodaryah
[one born of same womb:]
brother [of same mother]

ntodlil Somatirtham name
of pilgrimage place

: Somaratah pr. n.
saujanyam kindness
ulmirifch Saudhataki m.,
pr. n.

ylelU sauhardam friend-
ship, fondness
WilvH skhalanam failure,
lapse

WHeMVI : Stanakalasah
pr. n.

W?: stambah clump of
grass

l<mT: stambhah pillar

"*3 stu (II stauti) praise
strl irreg. woman
TO -stha standing, being
at/in, etc.

sthall dry land
TOT stha (I tisthati) stand,
stay, remain, abide, stop,
halt

TOT stha caus. (sthapayati)
cause to stand, establish
TOF+ sthanam place, occa-
sion; sthane in place,
appropriate(ly)

WH#: sthana-bhramsah
fall from position, loss of
place

TOlRjIH, sthayin lasting, sta-
ble

TOITORl sthasyati 3rd sg.
fut. para, of stha

371

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

Sanskrlt-English vocabulary

372

ftsitT sthita (p.p. of stha)
standing etc.

fWT sthira firm; sthiri~kr
make firm, sustain; sthiri”
bhfl befcome] firm

snanam bathing, bathe
fWST snigdha affectionate
snih (IV snihyati) feel
affection for ( loc .)

1 %: snehah affection,

fondness, tenderness, love
spand (I spandate)
quiver

sparsah touch
sprs (VI sprsati)
touch, affect

tUgH sprastum inf. of sprs
sphuta cleat; distinct
Smara-harah

Destroyer of Love ( epithet
of Siva)

fWT smi (I smayate) smile
smitam smile
smr (I smarati) remem-
ber (acc. or gen.)

^5 smr cam. (smarayati)
cause to remember, remind
syand (I syandate)
flow, move rapidly

syat 3 rd sg. opt. of as
srams (I sramsate)
drop, slip

sraj f. garland
^ sru (I sravati) flow
"?ar sva pron. adj. (one’s)
own

WreSViH, svacchandam at
one’s will, as one would
wish

svanah sound
svap (II svapiti) sleep

tcTCT: svapnah sleep; dream
svayam emphatic
pron. myself etc., by/for
myself etc., personally, of
one’s own accord

svarah sound, tone,
syllable

■Wvd sv:alpa small, scant

T5TCJ svasr f. sister

sviagatam welcome
to (dat.)

Wlfil'H, svamin owner, mas-
ter; svaminl mistress

svasthyam comfort,

ease

svl~karanam

[making one’s own:] marry-
ing

svl~kr make one’s
own, appropriate ,
svedah sweat
svairam gently

15T hata p.p. of han

15W hataka ifc. accursed
han(II hanti) kill, slay,
murder

^ han caus. (ghatayati)
get killed, have killed, put
to death

TFtT hanta ah! alas!

33: hayah horse
3T: Harah name of Siva
333 haranam ( from hr)
taking

# Hari m. name of Visnu
or Indra

3$: harsah joy, delight
33, has (I hasati) laugh
33T: hastah hand, arm,
trunk (of elephant)
gfwi, hastin elephant
3T ha ah! oh!

3lf3 hani f. abandonment
harm taking,
bringing

3T$ harya get. of hr
313: hasah laugh, chuckle
f? hi enclitic particle
for; assuredly, certainly,
etc.

f33 hita (p.p. of dha) put;
beneficial, well-disposed,
good (friend)

fjFT himam frost, snow, ice
f3333[, Himavant m., Hima-
layah the mountain
(range) Himalaya
3 hu (m juhoti) sacrifice
3 hr (I harati) take, carry,
carry off, take away
3 hr caus. (harayati)
cause to carry

333 hrdayam heart, mind
t he (before vocatives) O,
ah

tg hetu m. motive, ground
for (loc.) cause ; hetoh for
the sake of, for
3>3: homah oblation, sacri-
fice

373 !

Sanskrit-Engllsh vocabulary

1 j English-Sanskrit vocabulary

This is solely a vocabulary to the English-Sanskrit exercises:
words which occur only in the Sanskrit-English sections or in the
body of the chapters are not included. No exhaustive attempt
has been made to indicate the limits within which the Sanskrit
word is equivalent to the English. It must be gathered from the
context of the sentences themselves that, for instance, prati + pad
corresponds to ‘admit’ in its sense of ‘confess’ and that sn&ra*
yati means ‘recall’ in the sense of ‘bring to another’s mind’.
Where distinctions are made, the colon is used to mean ‘in the
sense of’— e.g. ‘call (:summon)’, ‘call in the sense of summon’. '

Where an English word (e.g. ‘wish’) occurs as more than one
part of speech, its verbal usage is normally listed first; but the
Sanskrit equivalent should at any rate indicate which part of
speech is in question. The same applies to forms in -ing such as
‘seeing’: darsanam is the substantive (action noun), darsin the
adjective (agent noun).

Morphological indications such as verb class are not usually
given where these may be found in the special vocabularies or in
the verb list.

a/an usually omit, kas tit, ko
>pi, ekah

abandon ha, vi + ha; aban-
doned ujjhita (p.p. of ujjh)
abide as

able, be —(to) sak
about ^concerning) prati;
about this (:on this matter)
atra

absent-minded sfinya;hrdaya
abundance bahutyam

accept grah, pari + grab, prati +
grah, aAgrkr
acceptance parigrahah
acclamation prasams>-alapah
accompany anu + vrt
accomplished siddha
accomplishment (:act of achiev-
ing) siddhi f.; (technical abil-
ity) silpam

accord, of one’s own — svayam
according to -vat

?

accursed hatakah ifc.
acknowledge abhi + upa + i
acquire 3 + gam caus.
act (:do) anu + sth3
act (a play) nat caus.
acting (:doing) k3rin
acting (in play) nrttam; science
of acting n3tya-s3stram
activity kriy3
actual use eva
actually eva
address abhi + dha
administration tan tram
admit prati + pad
adored one priyatama
advantage phalam
advice upadesah
affair karyam
affection pranayah
after parena + abl.; use absol
after very long aticirdt
after all khalu
afterwards pasc3t
again punar; yet again punar api
agent pranidhi m.
agitation samvegah
ah! aye

aiding upakirah
alas! hanta, kastam
alight, set — ut + dip caus.

(uddipayati)
alive jivita

all sarva pron.; on all sides sar-
vatah; at all eva; after all
khalu

allusion upany3sah
alone eka; (solitary) ek3kin
already prathamam, pttrva in
cpd. with p.p., sometimes just
eva

also api enclitic
altercation samgharsah
although api

among, from — madhy3t + gen.
or ifc.

amorous swoon madanamttrch3
and ca enclitic, ca . . . ca;
connecting two verbs,
usually expressed by absol.-,
connecting sentences, often
expressed by api after new
subject

anger krodhah, kopah, manyu
m.

announce ni + vid caus.
announcing nivedanam
annoyance pratyav3yah
another anya, para
answer prativacanam
ant piptlika
anxiety saAkS
anxious to ±k3ma
any kas cit, ko >pi
anyone kas tit, ko >pi; (:no
matter who) sarvah
apart from an tar en a + acc.
appearance varnah
appease (rquieten) sam cause.-,
(curry favour with) 3 + radh
caus.

appeasement anunayah
appointment samketah
apprehension 3saAk3
appropriate, to — svl~kr
appropriate utita;

appropriate(ly) sth3ne
approve abhi + nand
army (:forces) balam
arouse (:bring about) jan caus.-,
aroused janita, samj3ta
arrival 3gamanam
arrive 3 + gam, pra + 3p
arrow tenah, sarah
as (:like) iva; introducing subor-
dinate clause yath3 . . . tath3;
in cpd. yath3
as if use iva

as soon as yad» aiva . . . tad*
aiva

as well (:also) api

375

English-Sanskrft vocabulary

ascetic tlpasah, tapasvin
ascetics’ giove tapo-vanam
ashamed vilaksa
ask (about) prach (+ acc.)
asleep supta

assistant in gambling-house sab-
hyah

assume (role) grah
assuredly hi
astonished vismita
astonishment vismayah
at use loc.
at all eva
at once sampratam
attachment piasakd f.
attack (of emotion) Svesah; (on
enemy) abhiyogah
attempt prayatnah
attend anu + gam
attendance upasthanam
attendant anucarah
attentive avahita
attractive ramanlya
audience pari$ad f.
augmented sambhna
aunt (maternal) matr-svasr
austerity (religious-) tapas n.
autumn sarad f.
avoid pari + hr

bad news a:priyam
bakula (blossom) bakulam
banish nis + vas caus.
bank tlram
barb salya m./tt.
barbarian mlecchah
bard (royal—) vaitilikah
battle samarah
be as, bhii; (be currently) vrt
bearing dh&rin
beat tad

beat off apa-fhan
beating t&dah
beautiful sobhana
beauty sobha, rfipam

because use instr. or abl. of ab-
stract noun ; (:with the thought
that) iti

become bh& (in past samvrtta),
or use verb of motion with ab-
stract noun

become an object visayI~bbQ
bedchamber sayana-grham
before ( previously) priik; in
cpd. with p.p. pOrva
before (conj.) yavat na . . . tavat
begin (:undertake) sam + a +
rabh, (:make a start) upa +
kram

beginning Srambhah
behalf, on — of -artham
behave cest, a + ceft; (:deal
with) vi + ava + hr
belief pratyayah
believe srad + dha
beloved priya, vallabha; beloved
wife pranayini
bend down ava + nam
beneath adhasfit + gen.
benefit priyam
besieging nparodhanam
beside asanna, -samipe
bestow pra + da (+ dat.)
betel tambOlam; betel-box
tambOia-bhajanam
beyond vihaya
bird patatrin, paksin
birth janman birth-ceremony
jata-karman n.
bit chedah
blame upa + a + labh
blessing madgalam
blind andha
bliss nirvanam
blossom ut + svas
blossom kusumam
boast slagh (I slaghate)
body sariram, vigrahah, gatram
bodyguard, provide a — for
pari + vj (V parivraoti) + acc.

bondage bandhanam
book pustakam
bom of Sakuntala Sakuntaleya
both (adj.) ubha; both . . . and
. . . ca . . . ca

bow <3pa mJrt., karmukam

bower mandapa mJrt.

box bhandam

boy balah

brahmin brahman ah

bravo! $adhu

breast liras n.

breeze piavStam

bride vadhB

bridegroom varah; bride and
groom varayvadhfi
bright sobhana
bring a + ni, a + da; bring to a
pass avastbam gam cans.
bring up (chariot) upa + stha
caus.

broken bhagna
brother bhratr
brother-in-law syalah
burn dah
busy vyagra

busy oneself on abhi + yuj pass.
+ loc.

but punar enclitic, tu enclitic,
kim tu; but then athavi
buy kri

by normally use instr.; by (virtue
of doing something) use pres,
part.

call (:summon) a + hve
called (:named) use nama ‘by
name’ or ;naman
camp ni + vis
can use salq sometimes not
necessary to translate
cancellation pratisedhah
capture grah
careful s>_avadhlna
carriage ptavahanam

carry off apa + hr
case, in that — tarhi, ten a hi,
yady evam
cast ni + ksip
cause (to) use caus.
cause hetu m.
ceremony samskarah
certain, a — kasdt, ko >pi
certainly khalu
change parin&mah
character sll am
chariot rathah
chase away vi + dru caus.
check prati + sidh
chieftain raj an m.
child balah; dear child vatsah
childless amapatya
circumstances da&
citizen paurah
city nagaram, puram
clamour kobhalah
clean sud
dearly vyaktam
clever nipuna
dod of earth lofta mJn.
come i + gam, upa + gam, upa +
i, i + ya, sam + i + gam
come! (imperv.) ehi
come in pra + vis
comfort a + svas caus.
command sam + dis
command $3sanam samdesah,
3jna

common prtkrta
company, in the — of -sameta
compassion, feel — day (I day-
ate)

compassionate krpalu
complacent subhagammanya
complete sam + 3p
complete with sa_
conceal I + chad (X accha-
dayati)

concealed antarita
concealment pracchadanam

377

English-Sanskrtt vocabulary

conceive pari + kip cans.
concern cinta
conclusion avasanam
condemned vadhya
condition (:state) avastha
conduct caritam
confer (on) prati + pad caus. +
dot.

confidence, inspiring of — vis-
vasanlya

confident, make — prati + i caus.
confirmation pratipatti f.
conflict vimardah
confused akula
confusion, in — akuli~bhQta
congratulate use distya vrdh or
its caus. (see Chapter $)
conjecture tarkah
connive at (:overlook) npa +

course gati f.

course, of — lchalu enclitic
court raja-kulam
courtesan ganika
crag silS-cayah
creak vi + rn (H virauti)
create nis + ma (p.p. nirmita)
creeper lad
crime dofah
crowd of people jana-
padasamavayah
cruel d&runa
cruelty krauryam
cry a + krand (I akrandati)
cry out ut + ghus
cunning satha

curiosity kutfihalam, kautukam
curlew krauncali
curse sapah

conquer ji
conscious of -vedin
consciousness samjna
consecrated abhimantrita
consider ava + gam, cint (X dn-
tayati)

considerable gariyams
contemporary vartamana
contemptuous avamanin
contrive [:bring about] ut + pad
caus.

control, under one’s own—
svadhina
convent vibarah
conversant with abhijna + gen.
conversation samlapah
convey pra + 3p caus.
cool sitala
coral-tree mandarah
correctly samyak
council parisad f.
counsellor sadvah
counter-measures, take — prati +
vi + dha
country desah

dance nrt
danger bhayam
dare ut + sah
darkness tamas n.
daughter kanya, suta, duhitr
day divasah; by day diva
dead mrta

dear priya, vallabha; dear child
vatsah/vats3; my dear X (voc.)
use sakhe m./sakhi /; my dear
fellow bhadra; dear Rama
Rama:bhadrah
death mrtyu tn.
debtless anyna
decayed jirna
deceive vi + pra + labh
declare a + calcs (II acaste), but
normally a + khy3 outside pres,
stem

decoration bhQsaqam
decrepit jirna
deed karman n.
deer mrgah
defeat ji
defeat parajayah

defile dus earn.
deity devata

delay kala-haranam kr, 3s
delight har$ah; (delightful
event) utsavah
delighted prahrsta
delightful subhaga
deluded mQdha
demerit do§ah
demon asurah
denounce apa + dis
depart ut + ha, apa + yi
departure prasthanam
depict abhi + likh
depressed, feel — durmanayate
descendant of use vrddhi deriv-
ative

describe varnayati; as described
yath»_okta
desert pari + tyaj
desirable kanta
desire prarthitam, prarthana
despatch pra + hi (p.p. prahita)
despise ava + jfia
despondency vaimanasyam
destiny vidhi m.
destroying vadhah
destruction vinSsah
determination niscayah
devoid sflnya
die upa + ram
different anya pron,
difficult dus;kara; difficult (to
achieve) dur;labha
diligence abhiyogah
diligent abhiyukta
direct a + dis

direction dis f.; in one— ... in
another anyatah . . . anyatah
disaffection aparSgah
disappointment visadah
discern sam + vi + jfia, upa +
laks (X upalaksayati)
disciple antevasin
discover vid, pari + jfia

discrimination vivekah
disgrace, in — $a_oikiram
disguise vyanjanam
disinclined paranmukha
disloyalty aparagah
dismiss vi + srj earn.
dispersal (of crowd) bhafigah
dispute vivadah
distance, at a good — from
atidbre + gen.
distinction visesah
distract (pleasurably) vi + nud
cans.

distracted (:crazed) unmatta
distress arti f.; distress of mind
dtta-khedah

distress, be in — duhkham stha,
duhkham as
distressed viklava
disturb akulayati
do lqr, anu + stha, a + car;
sam + a + car

do violence to abhi + druh
doctor vaidyah
don pari + dha Ztm.
donate nis + vap
done, have — with krtam +
instr.

don’t use alam, or na + ger.

door dvaram, kapatam

doubt samdehah, vitarkah

draw a + krs

draw near prati + a + sad

dreadful atidaruna, anista

drink pa

drink pan am

drinking -pa ifc.

drive use nl with abstract noun

driver sarathi m.

driving away apanodanam

dweller -sad

dynasty vamsah

each other anyonya
eager utsuka

vocabulary

ear karnah
earlier pOrva pronom.
earth prthivi, bhfl f.
easy sulabha
eclipse upar&gah
effect kr

either ... or . . . va . . . va
elder jyayams; elder (person)
guru m.

elder brother jyayams bhratr,
agrajah

elephant gajah
else anya prow.; somewhere
else anyatra kv> dpi
embarrassing lajja-kara
embrace pari + svaj (I parisva-
jate)

emerge nis + kram
employ pra + yuj, vi + a + pf
earn.

enclosure vaiaya tn./n., vatika
end antah; to what end?
kunmimittam; an end of krtam
+ instr.

enemy ripu m.
engage ni + yuj
engrossed vyagra
enjoin vi + dha
enjoy pari + bhuj, (experience)
anu + bhfi
enough alam
enrage candl~kr
enter pra + vis

enter upon (vow) sam + a + ruh
entering pravesah
enterprise arambhah
entire nikhila
entirely eva
entry pravesah
epithet visesanatpadam
escape apakramanam
escort annyatrikah
especially -tara
establish stha cans.
even api enclitic

ever kadadt
every sam prow,
everyone (of a number) sarve
(p/.); (in general) sarvah (sg.)
everything sarvam
evil papa

evil-natured dur^tman
Excellency, His/Your aryah
excessively ati prefix
execution-ground vadhyastha-
nam

executioner ghatakah
exertion parisramah
exhausted parisranta
exploits caritam
extermination unmOlanam
extraordinary adbhuta
extremely ati prefix
eye netram, nayanam, caksus
n., locanam

face mukham, vaktram
fact, in — eva; from the fact
that yatha . . . tatha
faint moham upa + gam
fair-eyed su;nayana
fall pat, ni + pat; (to one’s lot)
upa + nam
fall silent t&$nim as
falling nipatah
fame yasas n.
familiar abhyasta
family kulam, anvayah,
kutiunbanj; (imembers of imm-
ediate household) grha-janah
far away (hire

fast to death amasanena sam +
stha dim.
fate daivam

father pitr; (one’s own) tatah
father-in-law svasurah
fault dosah
favour anu + grah
favour prasadah
favourable anuk&la

fearful trasta
fearfulness bhiru'tvam
fearing saAlrin
fellow batu m.; good fellow,
dear fellow bhadrah
festival mahotsavah
fetch down (from carriage) ava +
tf cans.

fetching iharanam

few, a — use kascit

field ksetram

fierce ugra

filament kesaram

find adhi + gam

find out upa + labh

finger aAguli/aAgull f.

fire agni tn., analah, vahni m.

fired, cause to be — dah cans.

firewood samidh f.

firmness dhairyam

first prathama

fixed (on) -isakta

flame jvala

flesh mimsam

flow abhi + syand

flower puspam, kusumam

fly up ut + pat, ut + di (uddi)

folk janah

follow anu + gam

follower inuyitrikah

fondness priti f.

food bhojanam, bhaktam

fool mOrkhah

foot padah

for (prep.) use gen.; (a period of
time) use acc.; for (the sake of)
-arthant or use dat.
for ( cottj .) hi enclitic
for oneself (:of one’s own accord)
svayam

forcibly balat
ford tirtham

forest vanam, aranyam, vipinam
forest-dweller vanecarah
forget vi + smr

forgive ksam (pass, ksamyate)
form vapus n.
former puratana (f. 1)
forsooth ldla
forth, and so — xadi
fortime bhagyam
forward anu + pra + is cans.

(anupresayati)
four catur
free muc

free from nis prefix
freedom (:scope) prasarah
friend vayasyah, mitram, suhrd
m., sakhi m. (voc. sakhe); (fe-
male) friend sakhi, (= pi.)
sakhltjanah
friend’s wife sakhi
friendship sakhyam
frivolous cancala
from use abl.; from
what/where? kutah; from
someone kutas cit
front, in —of agratah + gen.,
-samaksam
fruit phalam
fruitful sa_phala
fruitless, make — viphalrtcr
fulfil pr caus.

Full Moon Festival Kaumudlma-
hotsavah

further bbQyams

gain labh
gale nabhasvant m.
gallery vlthika, sila
game krl^

gaming master sabhikah
Gandharva Gandharvah;
Gandharva rite Gandharva
vidhi m.

garden udySnam
garland mala
garment visas n.
gaze drs
gaze drsti f.

381

English-Sanskrit vocabulary

English-Sanskrit vocabulary

382

gem ratnam
generally prayena
get labh; get (done) use earn.
get up ut + stha ($ lost between
the t and th — e.g. p.p. utthita)
girl kanya, kanyaka
give da
give up tyaj
giving danaqi
glory sri
go gam, ya
go against ati + kram
go back ni + vrt
go in(to) pra + vis
god surah, devah
God of Love Manmathah,
Kusumayudhah
goddess devi
going gamanam
gold suvarnam, hem an n.
good sadhu, (friend) hita, (in
voc .) bhadra; (rprosperity)
sreyas n.

good fellow bhadrah

good man surjanah

good woman (voc.) bhadre

gotra gotram

grandson dauhitrah

grant pra + yam

granted that kamam

grasp grah

great mahant

greatness mahiman m.

greet (person) abhi + vad caus.

Otm.; (thing) abhi + nand
grief sokah
grieve sue
groom see bridegroom
ground bhfimi f.\ (:cause) hetu
m.

guard raks

guest atithi m. abhySgatah
guide, someone to — nett

ha! ayi, hanta, ah
half Innrrionl ardhah

hand, hand over sam + r caus.,
r caus.

hand hastah, pani m.
hand, at — asanna
handmaid ajfiakari
happen: what happens/has hap-
pened etc. vrttantah
happiness sukham
hard to attain duriadhigama
hard to win durjlabha
harem antahpuram
harlot vesya
harsh visama
hate dvif

have use gen. with verb mean-
ing ‘ be ' — usually as, some-
times bha or vrt; have (some-
thing done) use caus.
having use bahuvrihi, suffixes
vant/mant, sa, etc.
hawker pan&yitt
he, him etc. sah, ayam, enam,
esah, asau or omit
head siras n.
heap r8si m.
hear sru

heart hrdayam, citttam
heat atapah
heavens, thank — distya
hell naraka mJn.
helpful upakarin
helpless paravasa
here a era, iha, or use esah,
ayam; over here itah
hereditary pitr-paryay>~3gata
herewith use esah
hermitage asramah, asrama-
padam
hero vlrati

hesitation amadhyava&yah
high-soaring utsarpin
highest (.-most excellent) para-
rdhya

Highness, your/His — kumarah
hindrance vighnah, antar§yah
hint at upa + ksip

his tasya etc.; his (own) sva
hither and thither itas tatah
ho, ho there! bhoh
hold on to ava + lamb
hole chidram
homage namas n.
home grbam, avasathah
honey-bee (female) madhukari
honour (request etc.) man
catts.; (:do honour to) puras +
kr, p&j (X pOjayati get. p&jya)
Honour, His/Your — ary ah;

His Honour here atrabhavant
honourable Srya
hope a + sams (I asamsate); I
hope kacdd [particle )
hope §3
horse asvah
hospitality satkarah
hostile (:adverse) pradkola
house grham, geham
household suddhantah, ganah
how? katham; in exclamations
use aho

however punar enclitic
human flesh mahatmamsam
huntsman vyadhah
hurry tvar atm.
husband, lawful — sahadhar-
macarin

husband and wife dampatl
(du.)

I aham

idiot mfidhah

idea, sit— ut+as

if yadi, cet enclitic ; if only! api

nama

ignoble andrya
ignorant amabhijna
ill-disposed to vimukha + gen.
ill omen durtnimittain
imagine sam + bhfi cans.
immediately amantaram, sadya
eva; immediately upon -anan-
taram eva

imminent bh§vin
impairment saithilyam
important thing pradhanam
in use loc., sometimes adverb in
-tra; (being) in -gata; having
(with)in igarbha; in . . . ing
often use pres. part.
inclination abhiprtyah
incline pra + vrt
including urlkrtya + acc.
inconvenience use dosah
increase vrdh caus.
indeed khalu enclitic
indicate upa + dis
indicating nivedaka
inevitably niyatam
inferiority Ughavam
inflammatory samdipana
inform ni + vid caus. * dat./gen.
ingratitude krtaghna~ta
inscrutable adntya
instigation to rebellion upajapah
instructed siksita
instructions Sdesah
intact, keep — pari + pal
intelligence buddhi f.
intention abhiprayah
interest kut&halam
interval antaram
intimacy visrambhah
intoxication madah
introduce (into) pra + vis caus.,
upa + ni + acc.
invade upa + rudh
invite upa + ni + mantr (X up-
animantrayati)
irritability duhslla~ta
it sah, ayam, enam, esah, asau
(usually in n.)
its tasya etc.

jackal $n$lah
jewel abharanam
join ghat caus. (ghatayati)
joined hands anjali m.
joke parih&sah

383

English-Sanskrtt vocabulary

English-Sanskrtt vocabulary

1384

juncture antaram; at this junc-
ture atr> an tare
just eva enclitic (: merely )
c.matra; (I’ll) just . . . fivat en-
clitic, yivat

kill vi + a + pad cause, have
(.■cause to be) killed ghatayati
killing vinasah
king r&jan m. (ifc. -rajah),
nrpah

king of Videha Vaidehah
kingdom rajyam
kinsman bandhu m.
know jfia, vid, ava + gam; know
how to jna

lack of use ai/am
lady, noble lady SkryS; this lady
atrabhavati; that lady tatrabha-
vatl

lake sarasl
lamp dipika
lapse skhalanam
later; some time — kasya cit
kalasya

laugh has (I hasati)

Lavanaka, (being) at — Lav8-
naica adj.

law, sacred — dharmah
lay 2 + ruh cans.
lead ni

learn vid, ava + gam
learned in the sacred law
dharma-vit
leave tyaj, pari + tyaj
leave, give — anu + jfia
-less nis_, a;/an;
let use imperv., sometimes in-
dicative

let alone kini punar
let go muc

letter lekhah, pattrika, pattram

licked avalidha

life jlvitam, prana m. pi.

like, I should — to icchami
like use iva, ~vat, sadrsa (f. i) +
instr.

limb afigam
line pa&kti f.
listen (to) sru
listen, someone to — srotr
little while muhurta mJn.
live (:be alive) jiv; (tdwell) vas,
prati + vas, ni + vas
long d&ra; (for) a long way
dbram; for a long time dram
long, after very — addrat
long, at — last cirat
long-lived ayusmant
look (at) dm; look upon iks
looking after upasamgrahah
loose vi + muc
lord pati m., adhipad m.
loss of place sthana-bhramsah
lotus pundarikam
loudly uccaih

love (:fondness) snehah, (:devo-
tion) anuragah, (.-passion) man-
mariiah

Love (god of-) Manmathah,
Kusumayudhah, Makara-
dhvajah

love, be in — with utkanthate,
kam earn.

loved one istatjanah
lovely ramaniya, manohara
low (:mean) ksudra

madam (voc.) bhadre
magnanimous mah»^tman
maid servant paricarika
maintain (fire) a + dha
Majesty, Her/Your — dev!
Majesty, His/Your — devah,
ayusmant

make kjr, ut + pad caus.
maker lcartr

man narah, purusaig (tperson)
janah

manage vi + dhl; manage to
use katham cit -
mango-tree cfitah
manoeuvre cesta
many bahu
mark laksanam
marriage dara-karman n.
marry vah
mass samghatah
master svSmin m.
matching samvadah
mating yugma-carin (‘going in a
pair’)

matter vastu n.
me mam etc.
meaning arthah
means upayah
measure m2 (caus. mSpayad)
measure pramanam
medicine ausadham
meditating dhyinam
meditation samadhi m.
meet sam + a + sad caus.;

(•.receive) prati + ut + gam
meeting samSgamah
melancholy udvigna
memory smrti f.
mendicant ksapanakah
mental turmoil vikarah
merchant sresthin m.
mere ^matra, eva
merit gunah; of merit
guna~vant
milk ksiram

mind manas attain, cetas n.,
hrdayam

mine, of mine say ‘of me, my’
minister amatyah
mirage mrgatrsnika
misconduct apacarah
misdeed akaryam
misfortune vyasanam
mishap pramadah
mislead vi + pra + labh
mission prayojanam

mistress svamini, isvari
moment mubfirta mJn.
money dhanam
monster nrsamsah
moon candrah
moonlight candrika
morning (:of the — ) adj. prage-
tana (f. t)

mother janani, amba (voc.

amba), matr
motion, in — pracalita
mountain, parvatah, sailah,
acalah

mouth vadanam
murder vi + i + pad caus.
must use ger. in tavya
mutual (:of etc. each other)
itaretara-

my madlya, or say ‘of me’, or
omit

my own sva; of my own accord
svayam

myself reflexive atman; (:me)
use aham

name nSman n., nSmadheyam
natural sulabha, (:innate) sa-
habhQ

nature prakrti f., atman m.
necklace mala
negligent pramatta
neutral madhyastha
never na kadadt
news vrttantah, pravrtti f.
night, by — ratrau
no use na or a:
noble arya, atyudira
noise sabdah
normal udta

not na, a:; A not B A na tu B
nothing na kim dt
notice laics (X laksayad)
now (:at the present time)
adhuna, idanlm, samprati;
(connective) atha, yavat, tavat

385

English-Sanskrit vocabulary

1

numerous prabhflta, mahAnt
nymph apsaras f.

object (:province) visayah
observe ni + sam caus.
obstacle vighnah
obstruct ni + rudh
obtain ava + Ap
obviously n&nam
occasion avasarah, s than am
occupation vyApArah
occupy adhi + as
occur jan
ocean sAgarah
of use gen., vrddhi derivative,
bahuvrihi cpd. etc.
offend against apa + radh + gen.

(p.p. aparaddha)
office adhikArah
often bahusah
oh! ha, aye, bhoh, ayi
on use loc on . . . ing use
absol. or loc. of verbal noun
once use pGrva; once more
punar apt

one eka pron.; (:a person) use
impersonal construction
only eva, ; mAtra
open (letter) ut + vesj caus.
opportune avasare
opportunity avasarah
oppress pid

or va enclitic, (:nor) va na
ornament Abharanam, alam-
karanam, bhflsanam
other anya, para; and other(s)

;adi

otherwise anyatfaa
out; of ours say ‘of us’
out of use abl.
outcaste svapAkah
outcome parinAmah, vijrmbhi-
tam

outside bahih
over here itah

overcome parita
overlook mrs caus.
overtures (:insdgadon to rebel*
lion) upajApah

own, my/your etc. — sva, At-
manah; make one’s own svi~kr

paint a + likh
painter citrakarah
pair yugalam
palace rAja-kulam; SugaAga
Palace SugAAga.-prAsAdah
pang vedanA; pangs of love

m anma ttp- Anmathah

pardon mrs (IV mfsyati)
parents pitr du.
park udyAnam
part uddesah; for (someone’s)
part use api
partial paksapAtin
particle avayavah
partisan paksapAtin
pass avasthA, dasA
pass over ad + kram
passion abhiiAsah
past atita

past, present and future
trikAlam
path -pathah
peak sAnu m.
people janah

perceive ava + lok (X avalokay-
ad)

perform (:do) anu + sthA; (a
play) pra + yuj
performance prayogah
perfume vas

persistence (adherence) anuband-
hah

person janah; (:body)
sariram;deha mJn.
personalty svayam eva
peddon pra + arth (X prArtha-
yate)

picking avacayah

picture citram
piety dharmah
pity anu + lamp
place ni + ksip

place desah, sthlnam, pradesah
place of sacrifice agnihotra-
saranam

plan samkalpah

play a role bhfimikam kr Atm.

pleasant ramanlya, priya

pleasure sukham

pluck out ut + hr

poet kavi m.

point, what - in? kim + instr.
poison vi$am
poisoner tiksna:rasa-dah
ponder vi + car cause.
pool tirtham
poor, poor fellow [pityingly )
tapasvin; poor girl vardki
poor material adravyam
portrait alekhyam
possessed of - upapanna
possessions parigrahah
possessor of ~mant
possible upapanna
power prabhavah; have power
over pra + bhfi + gen.
practise (cruelty) pra + yuj,
(austerities) car
praise stu
prayer japah
preceptor upSdhy&yah
prelude prastivah
presence, to the— of -sakasam;

in the — of pratyaksam + gen.
present samnihita
present pratigrahah
present with prati + pad cam. +
double acc.
pretence apadesah
previously pQrva ifc.
prince kumirah
princess raja-putrl
prisoner bandhana-sthah

prize (rvalue highly) abbi +
nand

proceed ut + cal
procession yatra
proclaim ut + ghus cam.-, (:de-
clare authoritatively) 3 + dis
proclamation, after — prakhya-
pya (lit. ‘having proclaimed’)
procure ava + gam cam.
proficiency prSvinyam
promised pratisruta
proper yukta

protea raks, pari trai, pari +
p3l; (someone) to protea (one)
tr3tr

provide upa + kr
punishment dandah
pupil sifyah, sisya
purse-proud artha-matta
pursue anu + sr
put to shame prati +a + dis

quality gunah
quantity samcayah
queen rSjbi (as title) devi
quickly 3su
quiet nibhrta
quite eva enclitic
quiver spand

rag pataccaram
rather nanu
reach anu + pra + 3p
ready udyata
realise ava + gam
really satyam
reason ldranam
rebuke upa + 3 + labh
rebuking up3lambhah
recall smr cam.
receive grah

recklessness asamlksya:kari~t3
recognise prati + abhi + jn3, pari
+ d

reconciled prasanna

redundancy paunaruktam
reed vetasah
refuse to use na
regain (consciousness) upa +

labh

regard (: think) man
regard for -anurodhah; with
regard to prati + acc.
rein abhisu m.
reject prati + i + dis
rejection pratySkhySnam,
pratySdesah
rejoice mad
release vi + srj
relent prasadam kr
religious power siddhi f.
remain stha
remaining part sesah
remark vacanam
remedy pratikarah
remember smr
remnant se$ah
remove apa + ni; (ornaments
etc.) ava + tf caus.
reply prativacanam
report prasiddhi f.
request vijnapana
rescue abhi + upa + pad
rescue prina-raksa
residence bhavanam
resist pari + hr
resolve niscayah
resort to a + sri
respect for bahumanah + loc.
respect, worthier of — garlyams
respectfully sa_gauravam
resplendent dipti'mant
restrain ni + grah, upa + sain + hr
restraint avagrahah
return prati + ni + vrt
reveal 5vis~kr, pra + kas caus.
reveal oneself avir~bhD
revered tatrabhavant; my
revered father tata-padah
Reverence, Her/Your — bhagavati

reverend bhagavant (f.
bhagavati)

reward pari + tus caus.
reward phalam
rewarding parito$ah
riches vibh&ti f. pi.
riding carya
right adv. eva
right (rproper) yukta; righdy
yuktam

right (opp. left) daksina; to the
right of daksinena + acc.
ring adgurlyaka tnJrt.
rise ut + cal, ut + stha
rite kriya, vidhi madgalam
river nadi

road, roadway margah
rock sila
role bhCmika
rosary aksamala
roused upajata
royal bard vaitalilcah
royal seer raja:rsi m.
ruined, be — ava + sad
ruler Isvarah
run pra + dru

sacred law dhannah
sacrifice hu

sacrifice, place of — agniho-
trasaranam
sacrificial medhya
sacrilege abrahmanyam
safeguard raks
sage muni m.
sake, for the — of -artham
salute pra + nam, vand (get.
vandya)

same, the/that — sah + eva; this
same ayam etc. + eva
say vad, vac, kath, brfi, abhi +

dha

scandal kaulinam
scant svalpa

scare ut * tras caus. (uttrlsayati)

scent amodah
scholar panditah
science sSstnun
scold npa + a + labh
seal madid
search ana + is
search, in — of anvesin
season samayah
seated, be — ni + sad
second dvitlya
secret rahasyam
seduce S + vrj cam.
see drs, ava + lok, a + lok; see to
it thatkr + yatha
see, see how use esah or ayam
seeing darsanam
seeing darsin
seem use iva

seer rsi m., great seer mahatrsi
m.

seize grab

self, myself etc. (reflexive)
atman m. sg.; (emphatic)/foi
oneself etc. svayam
self-control dhairyam
selfsame eva
sell vi + kri

send pra + is cam. (presayati)
senior to guru + gen.
separated, having become —
vighatita

serpent visadharah, nagah,
phanabhrt m.

servant parijanah, dasi; servant
girl dasi

service upakarah, priyam
set stha cam.
set forth, set out pra + stha
severe (punishment) tiksna;

(austerity) kasta
shade chaya
shake cal bam. (calayati)
shame lajja; shame (on) dhik
(■race.)

shame, put to — prati + a + dis

sharp nisita; (:astringent)
kasaya

shoot vyadh (pass, vidhyate)
should me arh or ger. in ya /
anlya

show drs cam.
show preksaniyakam
shower abhi + vrs (1 abhivarsati)
shower (:multitude) nikarah
shut avrta
side paksah
sides, on all — sarvatah
sight darsanam
sign liAgam, cihnam
signal samjna
signature svahastah
silent, stay — t&snlm as; fall
silent tOfnim as (in imperf.)
sin papman m.
since (prep.) prabhrti + able,
(tbecause) me abUinstr. of ab-
stract noun, or yena, yatah, yat,
id

sing gai

sir arya

sire iajan

sister bhagini, svasr

sit (down) upa + vis

skill kausalatn

sky gt^anam; skies dis f. pi.

slab talam

slender me yasti f.

slip pari + bhrams

slow, by — stages sanaih sanaih

snake sarpah

snatch hr

so (simple connective) tat,

(:I infer that) tarhi; (:thus)
evam, (:to such an extent) evam
sobriquet prasiddhi f.
soft mrdu
sojourn sahavasah
soldier sainikah
solely kevalam; solely partial
ekatpaksapatin

Englisl

English-Sanskrit vocabulary

390

solitary ekaldn
some, someone kas cit, ko >pi;
someone (to do something)
agent noun

son putrah, darakah, sutah, pu-
trakah

sorrow visadah
sovereignty rajyam
speak vad, vac, abhi + dha
speaking katha
specify nis + dis
spectator simajikah
speech vSc f.
spend (time) gam caus., y3
cans, (yapayad)
spoil dus caus.
spot (:p(ace) uddes'ah
stages, by slow — sanaih sanaih
stamp adk
stand stha
standing -stha ifc.
start a + rabh
state avastha
stay stha, as
step padam
still idanim api
stone sila
stop stha
story vrttamah
strange ^unprecedented)
apfirva; (rmarvellous) citra
stranger parah
strategy nlti f.
street ratfaya

stroll through anu + vi + car +
acc.

student batu
stupid balisa
subject praja, prakrd f.
success siddhi f.
such idrsa, evamjvidha, rdrs
(Idrk)

such as ividha, jadi
suddenly sahasa
sudra s&drah

suffering vyatha
sufficient paryapta
suicide atma-tyagah
suited anuifipa
suitor prarthayitr
summon a + hve, sam + a + hve
sun s&ryah, vivasvant m.
support nibandhanam
suppress ni + grah
suppressing nigrahah
surely khalu
surmise tark (X tarkayati)
surpassing (:extreme) atisaya;

(:going beyond) -adrikta
surround pari + vr
sweat svedah
sweet madhura
swift sighra, ksipra
swoon mbrcha
sword sastnun
syllable aksaram

take (tconvey) nl; (accept, un-
derstand) grah
take away apa + ni
talk kadi
talking a&pah
task Idtaryam, karman n.
taunt adhi + ksip
teacher acaryah, upadhyayah
tell vad, vac, kath
temple ayatanam
tend (plants) pari + vrdh caus.
tender irdra; make tender vat-
salayati

tenderness snehah
that {demon.) sah, asau; ( conj .)
id, yat, yatha

the usually omit, sah, asau
then tads, tatah; (:so) tat; but
then atha v3

there tatra; from there tatah
there is asd; there is ayam asau
therefore atah
thereupon tatah

thicket vitapa mJn.
think man, cint
this esah, ayam, enam; in/on/
about this atra; from this atah
though api, yady api
thoughts citta-vrtti f.
thread sfitram
three -trayam; three or four
tricatura

threshold dvir f.
throne simhasanam
throng sammardah, samkulam
thus evam
tiger vyaghrah

time kalah, vela, avasarah; some
time later kasya cit kalasya
tip pari + tus caus.
tired parisranta
tithe bhagah
title sabdah

to use gen., dat., inf. etc.-, (:in
the direction of) use acc., prati,
-antikam; (:in order to) use
dat. or -artham
today adya

together with saha + instr.

tone gir f.

too api

top sikharam

touch sprs

touch sparsah

towards prati + acc.-, ( — an ob-
ject of feeling) prati or use loc.
town puram
townsfolk paura:janah
trader vanij m.
trainer vinetr
traitor raj>-apathya-karin
tread ksud

tree p^dapah, vrksakah, vrksah;

young tree potakah
tremble kamp (I kampate)
triumph over ati + si
trouble tedh (I badhate)
true satya

truly satyam, nanu

trust . vi + svas (I visvasati) + loc.

trustworthy ipta

try yat

turmoil, in a — tumula
turn (to) k|p + dat.
turn away pars + vrt caus.
turn back prati + ni + vrt
turn into (:become) use
samvrtta; (.-convert into) use kr
in compound

turn round pari + vrt caus.
twin yamaja
two use du. or -dvayam
twofold dvaya (f. dvayl)

ugliness vaiifipyam
ultimate para
un- a:/an:

uncalled for adc3rana
uncertainty vikalpah
understand ava + gam, grab
understand, someone to —
jnatr

underway pravrtta

unite yuj caus.

unshakeable (resolve) aharya

unsteady vihvala

until ySvat

untoward apara

upon use loc.

us asm&n etc.

usher in pra + vis caus.

utterance bharati

vain vitatha
vainly mrsa
valour vikramah
valuable maharghya
vanish tiras + bh&
vapour dfafimah
various vidtra; various-ness
vaidtryam
vendor vikretr
verse ghtha

391

English-Sanskrtt

very (adj.) use eva
vexation p ankles ah
victorious, be— vi + ji atm.
victory vijayah
Videha, of — Vaideha If. 1)
vile dur£tman
villain p^pah
vine lat31

violate ut + laAgh caus.
violence, do— to abhi + drub
violent pracanda
virtuous $3dhu (f. sadhvi)
visible abhivyakta
voice v3c f.
void sBnya
vow vratam, pratijfia

wait for prad + pal
wait upon upa + as
walk sam + car &tm.
wall bhitti f.
wander bhram
want is

warrior k&triyah
washed dhauta
watch vi + lok earn., drs
water jalam, salilam
way prakirah; in this way
evam; this way (:in this direc-
tion) itah; on the way antara
wayward dur:vinita
wealth vibbOti kosah, dyum-
nam

weaning stanya-tyigah (‘leaving
the breast’)
weapon astram
wear dhr
wed upa + yam
weep rud

welcome prad + nand; wel-
come! sv3gatam
welfare kusalam
well su prefix
well, as — api
wet kiinna

what? kah (1dm); what, . . . ?
katham; what (a)! use aho;
what (:that which) yat; from
what? kutah; what of it? tatah
Idm

when yatfe, yivat

where? kva; where (con/.) yatra;

where from? kutah
whereabouts? kutah
which? kah; which (rel. pron.)
yah

while (:short time) muhfirta
m. for a little while muhfi-
rtamiva

while (con/.) y3vat
who/whom? kah; who/whom
(rel. pron.) yah; it is . . . who
use eva

whole sarva, sakala, asesa
whore pumscall
whose kasya etc., yasya etc.
why? 1dm, (.-for what purpose?)
Idm-artham, (:from what
cause?) kasmat; why! (in sur-
prise) katham, (in mild admo-
nition) nanu
wicked dur^tanan
widespread prathita
wife kalatram, dJrah m. pi.;

friend’s wife sakhl
win 1i

wine madhu n.
wish is

wish manorathah
with use instr.; (together with)
saha + instr., sa in cpd.; (:pos-
sessing) ~vant or bahuvribi
withdraw sam + hr
without use prefixes nis or a;

without (doing) a + absol.
witness pratyakfi'kr
witness (to) -saksin
woman stri, n£ri, yosit f.
wonder; I — (after interrog.) nu
khalu

wonderful vidtra
woo pra + arth (X pr3rthayate)
wood vanam, kananam
word vacanam
work karman n.; (:literary
work) prabandhah, prayoga-
bandhah, krti f.
working vySparah
world lokah
worried, be — sadk (I
saAkate)
worship vand
worthier of respect gariyams
worthy 3rya

worthy holder bhajanam
wounded vranita
wretch varakah
write likh, abhi + likh
writer kavi m.

yet tatha >pi, punar enclitic
you tvam (tvat/yusmat) etc.;
*you ( polite form) bhavant (f.
bhavati)

young tree potakah
younger kanlyams
your/yours/of yours say ‘of you’
youth navaryauvanam

393

Engllsh-Sanskrit vocabulary

English index

ablative

cause (with abstract nouns) 133
comparison 193-4 (after anya or
pariha 194, after api 193;
replaced by analytical
construction with negative 194)
from , because of 60
time after which 63
absolutive
logical subject
expressedJunexpressed 68
-tva, -ya 67
-tya, -ayitva 67
uses of 67-8
accusative

a cc. and inf. see iti 194 ff. and
yacha 177-9

direct object use, with verbs of
motion, double acc. 38
double acc. in causatives 86
further object in causatives 86
predicative 105-6
sg. neut. for adverbs 54
time during which 63
address

polite forms of x 16-17 ■
adjectives

accordJconcord of 39, 71
poss., reflexive sva, Jtman 61-2
pronominal, anya, sarva,
eka, sva 64

see Appendix 2 for paradigms

adverbs
of manner 54
attributively used 148-50
correlative 163-4
interrogative (indef. use with cit
and api) 65

pronominal (relationship with
pronouns ) 148-50
relative (extension ofrel.

pronoun) 162-5
relative (subordinate clauses)
vd. yena, yat, yathS,
yatah, yatra 175-81
-tah forms adverbs with abl.
sense 150

termination (acc. sg. neut. or
instrumental ) 54
alphabet nagart
anus vara 7

conjunct consonants 13-15, 18-19
consonants 8-1 1
h ( voiced) 13
names of letters 16
semivowels 11-12
transliteration 16-17
visarga 7-8
vowels 3-7
writing of 1-3
aorist 207-9

non-sigmatic (root, -a 207-8
reduplicated 208)
pass. 209

sigmatic (-s 208, -is 208-9, -sis
209, -sa 209)
article

definite, indef., lack of 38

become, has become
with verbs of motion and abstract
nouns 135

see also samvrtta 107

cases

abl. 60

acc. 38
dative 59-60
gen. 60-2
instrumental 49
in time usages 63
locative 62-3
nominative 38

relationships in determinative
compounds 72 ff.
vocative 38-9
causatives 85-7
cans, roots without cans.

meaning 87
like simple verbs 87
past part, -ita 86-7
suffix -p 85

tenth class, suffix -aya, root
strengthening 85
trans./intrans. 85-6
use of cases in 85-6
comparatives

notably, particularly 193-4
-tara, -yams 192-3
see Appendix 2
compounds

coordinate (dvanda) 43-4
determinative (tat-purusa) 71-7
forms of verbal roots at end of
74; with madhye 78
descriptive (kannadMraya) 75-7
(adj. + noun 75-6, noun + noun
76, adj. + adj. 76-7, noun + adj.
77); with inseparable prefixes
88-9, purva placed second 89
exocentric (bahuvrihi): adjectival
99-104 analysis of 148; based on
karma dhirayas 101; garbhah
(containing) at end 134; -ka as

suffix 124; kirn 103; mitra
(merely) at end 152; of 102;
prepositional 114-16; translated
by use of relative 101; with api
102-3; with a su and dus xoi;
with n 3 ma 104; with past part.
103; with sa and nis 115; with
yath 5 115-16

-gata at end of, meaning in, about 93
long compounds, use 0/92-3
of more than two members 89-92
concord 162
conditional tense
formation 190

use in past unfulfilled conditions 192
conditions 191-2
see also optative, yadi, cet
conjunct consonants 13-15, 18-19
consonants 8-1 1
containing translated by garbhah
(in bahuvrlhis) 134

395

dative

purpose 59-60, 133
to, for 59-60
denominatives 1x8
desideratives Appendix 2

enclitic particles
api though 49
concessive 102-3
in comparison 193
indef. 64-5
with yadi even if 180
ca and 32
cet if 180
cit indef. 64-5
eva emphasis 52
iva comparison 32, 42-3
feel 66

khalu emphasis 68-9
va or, va - vi either -or 53
enclitic pronoun enam 127-8
exclamations 133-4

feel translated by iva 66
future tense
formation of 174-5
periphrastic with agent of noun
140-1

English Index

English index

396

gender
accord 39
fem. in ih 71, 84
m consonant stents 83-4
see also Appendix z
masc. and newt, a steins 37-8
genitive 60-1

after - to desire, honour, know 61
as alternative to dative after - give,
tell 60-1
poss. 61

of pronoun instead of poss. adj. 61
time after which 63
with superlatives 194
genitive absolute 145
gerundive (future pass, part.)
formation of -ya, -anlya, -tavya
158-61

meaning and use 158-61
with na in negative prohibition

130

h ( voiced ) 13

have expressed by gen. case 66

imperative 118-30
impersonal 143
pass. 143

prohibition with ma 130
second and third person 129-30
with iti for indirect command 130
see verb forms in Appendix z
imperfect 188-90
formation of 188
forms from future stem for
conditional 190
use and meaning of 189-90
with past part, (pluperfect tense)
190

verb forms Appendix z, and sma
189

indirect command 197-8; see iti
indirect question 198-9; see iti
indirect speech 195; see iti .
infinitive

in pass, context 173-4
in -tu, with l&raah and manas 174
prolative use 172
purpose 172

subject of sentence 173
-turn 172

with avasarah and samayah right
time to 173
injunctive tense 209
instrumental 49
cause, with abstract nouns 49
for displaced subject in causatives

87

time within which 63
use as adverb of manner 54
with, and as agent in pass. 49
with krtam and alam in negative
exhortation, with kim 54
mterrogatives

in compounds 128; see Appendix 2
kim, what ? 32, 53
interrogative clauses 198-9; see iti

letters

names of 16
locative

at, in, on, among, into, on to 62-3
of circumstance 133
in bahuvrihis 210
represented by gata 93
time at which 63
locative absolute 144-5

metres

anustubh 2x1-12
ardhasamacatuspad? 215
irya 215-16
caesuras 213
long (guru) syllables 214
samacatuspadi 212-15
short (laghu) syllables 214
middle (atmanepada) 112-13
perfect forms 206
verb forms Appendix z
moods, see imperative and optative

negation
mi 130
na 25

nominal stem endings
changeable consonant stems 97-9
ending in consonants 83-4; see
Appendix z

fern, in -&l-\ 71
in -1 84

in -1 and -& 124
in -r 139-41
in -u and -i m
-yarn, -mant 112
in vowels see Appendix 2
nominative, subject use 38
nouns
in -a 78-9

abstract, formation of 119, 130-1
agent 139-40
in- ana 106

stems used to form denominatives

118

uses of 131-3

verbal action {inf., gerund) 67-8
numerals 16; see Appendix 2

optative 190-1; see Appendix 2

pronouns

adjectival and substantial use 39
emphatic 105
enclitic 127-8
in compounds 128
interrogative see Appendix 2
omission of 51-2
reflexive 104-5
relative 145-7
this, that 63-4

pronouns and pronominal adverbs
relationship between 148-9
prosody 17-18
punctuation 15-16
punctuation of compounds
bahuvrihis 99-100
dvanda 44
karmadhiraya 75
tatpurusa 72

purpose clauses 198; see iti

397

participles

active and pass, sense 51
past artn/e -vant 1 13-14
past pass, -ta, -ita, -na 47-9
pres, -ant, -amina 126-7
use in pass, sentences 42
passive
aorist 209

in past pass, sentences 50
perfect 206
see Appendix 2
perfect

formation of 205-7
meaning 206-7
part. 206
periphrastic 206
pluperfect 190
precative 210
prefixes

before verbs 24-5
prepositions 77-8
in compounds 1x4
present tense
classes 1 , IV, VI 23-4
classes II, V, VIII 157-8
classes 111 , VII, IX 170-2
see Appendix 2 and see sma 189
prohibitions 130

quotations 195 ff.\ see id

sandhi 25-31
consonant + consonant 29
consonant + vowel 29
external, irregularities of 39-40;
final n preceded by a short vowel
t and s 69; ambiguities of 79-80
final 1 and h 29-30
internal, retroflexion of s and n

54-6

use of grids 26-31
vowel * consonant 26
zero 29

semivowels 11-12
sibilants 12-13
subject, logical, in past pass,
sentences 52

superlatives (-tama and -istha)

192-4

tenses, see aorist, caus., conditional,
denominative, desiderative,
future, imperative, imperfect,
injunctive, perfect, pluperfect,
precative, pres,
that sah, asau 63
this ayam, esah 64

English index

English Index

398

time, expressions of 63
transliteration 16-17

vocative case 38-9
vowel gradation (guna/vrddhi)
22-3

m accented and unaccented syllables
97-9

vowels 3-7

word order 41-2
see compounds, long, use of 92-3

a, an (negative prefix)
m karmadMrayas 88
with bahuviihis ioi
with the absolutive 89
ati beyond

in prepositional compounds 1 14
atha if 180

anu (prep . + acc.) after 78
anustubh (metre) 211-12
anusvira 7

antaram interval, difference 210
anya, other pronominal declension
64

with abl. in comparison 194
api (particle)
interrogative 32-3
concessive after babuvrlhis
102-3

in comparison 193
indefinite use with interrogative

64-5

though (with part.) 49
with yadi, even if 180-x
api nima if only, with optative

1 90-1

ayam, declension and use 63-4; see
Appendix 2

ayusmant (polite forms of address)

116-17

ardhasamacatuspadi (metre) 2x5
alam enough of
negative prohibition 130
with instrumental 53
avyayibhava (prepositional
compound) use as adverb 116
as be

forms and use of, there is, there are

64-5

sant pres. part. 127; see Appendix z
asau that, he 181; see Appendix 2
ahan day

stem m compounds 128
forms of 210; see Appendix 2
aho oh! 133-4

a (prep. + abl.) up to 78-9
ajiUkpayari order 182
atraanepada 1 12-13
of perfect 206
adi, etc. x8x- 2
arya (metre) 2x5-16
atman self

as reflexive pronoun 104-5
poss. use (gen.) 61-2
stem in compounds 128

idam (demonstrative) with
impersonal pass. 143; see
Appendix 2
id thus, in this way
direct and indirect speech 130
and 194-7
(indirect commands,
indirect questions, indirect
speech, purpose clauses)
introducing noun clause
as subject of verb 177
inverted comma use 33, 151
quotations 194-5
iva (particle)
feel 66

in comparisons 32, 42-3
•iyams comparative suffix 192 ff.%
see Appendix 2
istha superlative suffix 192 ff.

Sanskrit index

ut up in compounds 114
eka one

pronominal declension 64
enam enclitic pronoun
him, her 1*7-8
eva (particle)
emphasis 51

to mark predicative of nominal
sentence $2
esah this

inflexion, deictic use, use with
first or second person verb 53
see Appendix 2

karma dhSraya (determinative
compound) 75-7, 88-9
kimam though 180-1
kaf cit

indef. pronoun use 64-5
with relative (whatever) 146
kim what)

with instrumental ; what is the
point of l 53
krdo

make compounds of 161-2
krtam done
negative exhortion 53
khalu (particle)
emphatic use 68-9

gata being in

about, at end of compounds 93
garbhah containing
at end of bahuvrxhis 134
guna (vowel gradation) 22-3,
97-9

ca and 32

cit (particle) 64-5

cet if 180

janah person
at end of determinatives
meaning indefmitiveness or
plurality 117
jata become
has become 107

disty 3 by good luck
with vrdh expresses
congratulations 117-18
dus ill, badly
in bahuvrlhis 101
prefix in karmadtarayas 88
dvanda (coordinative compounds)
43-4

dhamn stem in composition 128

tadi then 183-4
tatpurusa ( determinative
compounds) 71-7
tatra there 148
tatha so 183

-tama superlative suffix 192-4
-tara comparative suffix 192-4
-tah adverbial suffix 150
-tra neut. suffix denoting instrument
used by agent 141

na (negative) with kas cit ko >pi
meaning no one, nothing, none
84-5

nagari see English index under
alphabet

nis without, lacking
in exocentric compounds 115

bahuvrlhi (exocentric compounds)
99-104, 114-18; see English
index under compounds
bhagavant, polite form of address 117
stem in compounds 1*8
bhavant polite form of address 117
stem ht compounds 128
bhavitavyam gerundive of bhfi 181
bhu

compounds of 181-2
exist, arise 88
omission of 68
use of, gerundive 161

parasmaipada active voice 112
pascat behind
with abl. or gen. 78
purva before

at end of karmadhSrayas 89

prati (prep. + acc.)
towards, against, with regard to 77
in avyayibtevas 116
prabhrti etc. 181-2

madhye in the middle of (for gen.

case) 78
-mant

poss. meaning 112
stems in 112

mate, for mahant in compounds 100
raahant great 100 , 127 (irreg. stem )
matebtegah polite form of address

m& negative particle 130
itetra merely
at end of bahuvrihis 152

rijan stems in composition 128
ratri stems in composition 128

yat

correlative with tat 177-8
inasmuch as 178
introducing noun clauses 177
yatah

from where 162-3, 177
therefore 176-7
yatra where 162
yatte

in compounds 115-16
introducing noun clauses 178-9
result (with kr and vidba) 179
yatte . . . tatte in which way .. .in
that way 163

yada . . . tada at which time, at that
time 163

yadi . . . tatah at which time, at that
time 163

yadi . . . atha at which time, at that
time 163
yadi if 180

yadi api even if 180-1
yavat

throughout 164
until 164-5
while 164-5

with negative before 165

•yams comparative suffix 192 ff.-, see
Appendix 2

yena

connecting relative 178
in view of, the fact that 178

401

-vat poss. suffix used as comparison
diva
vad say

used with double acc. 38
-vant

in past active part, formation

1 13-14

poss. meaning 112
stems in 112
varam a preferable thing
in comparisons 194
vartate (intrans.) be, exist 113
va or see English index under enclitic
particles

vijtepayate request 182
vina without
with instrumental 78
visesah

difference 165-6
a particular 166
visarga 7-8
vrddhi

derivates in secondary nominal
formations 119
in consonant stems 97-9
in patronymics 119
neut. abstracts formed
from adjectives and
nouns 119
(vowel gradation) 22
vrdh (with distya) congratulations
118

sa with

accompanied by 115
and 1 15

having in exocentric compounds
1 14-15

possessing 115

sakhi, stem in composition 151
sant good

pres. part, of as, to be 127

Sanskrit index

Sanskrit Index

402

samacatuspadi, metre 111-15
samvrtta become, has become 107
sarva all (pronominal declension) 64
saha with

with instrumental 49-50
sah that
he, it 39

form in external sandhi 39-40; see
Appendix 2
su well, very easily
in bahuvrihis 101

in karmadharayas 88
sma, particle, with pres, tense
indicates was doing etc. 189
sva own

reflexive adj. 61-1
pronominal declension 64
svayam of one’s own accord
emphatic reflexive 105

hi for

emphatic particle 178